Linguistic, Psychological, Philosophical Aspects

Proceedings of the International Conference
The Communication of
Certainty and Uncertainty:
Linguistic, Psychological,
Philosophical Aspects
University of Macerata (Italy)
3rd – 5th October 2012
Under the auspices of the University of Verona (Italy)
Edited by
Andrzej Zuczkowski
Ramona Bongelli
Ilaria Riccioni
Carla Canestrari
University of Macerata
iada.online.series Volume 1/12
Proceedings of the International Conference :
The Communication of Certainty and Uncertainty:
Linguistic, Psychological, Philosophical Aspects
Edited by Andrzej Zuczkowski, Ramona Bongelli,
Ilaria Riccioni, Carla Canestrari
Published by the International Association for
Dialogue Analysis.
ISSN: 1999-5598
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Covert Art by Pierre-Luc Chabot
Proceedings of the International Conference
The Communication of Certainty and
Uncertainty: Linguistic, Psychological,
Philosophical Aspects
University of Macerata (Italy)
3rd – 5th October 2012
Under the auspices of the University of Verona (Italy)
Edited by
Andrzej Zuczkowski
Ramona Bongelli
Ilaria Riccioni
Carla Canestrari
University of Macerata
Table of contents
Preface
3
Chapter 1: Communicative Interactions
Mediation and the Uncertainty of Meaning
Bruce Fraser
5
Does conversational humor have to be funny?
Stefania Stame
10
Development of motor communication skills at school
Lucie Mougenot
19
Certainty and uncertainty in pedagogical counseling
Stefano Polenta
33
Degrees of (un)certainty in Bari Italian yes-no question
intonation: perceptual evidence
Michelina Savino
52
Chapter 2: Literature
Uncertainty markers in novels
Marina Mizzau
Persuasive communication and construction of certainty in
colonial Brazil
Marina Massimi
Paul Guimard entre humour et ironie
Yvonne Goga
69
80
95
L’(in)certitude dans l’univers de croyance de Robinson
Mihaela Mitu
107
Les “certitudes” de Pangloss
Alexandrina Mustățea
119
Le drame de la conscience moderne entre savoir et vérité
Crina Magdalena Zarnescu
127
1
Chapter 3: Media
The expression of certainty and uncertainty in social
communication campaigns
Elisa Pellegrino and Luisa Salvati
135
Facing uncertainty in a risk context: the role of
Social Networks (SNSs)
Maura Franchi
155
Discourse Analysis of Mood Structures in Oprah Winfrey Show
Hala El Saj
171
Chapter 4: L1 and L2
Measuring something that cannot be grasped – Reflections
about Methodology in Elicitation of Spoken Competence
Sabine Hoffmann
184
Vagueness, uncertainty, certainty. Reflections on native and
non-native speakers
Sabrina Machetti
195
Linguistic Relativity and Universality of Zero Personal Pronouns
in Rakugo Translation
Rieko Matsuoka and Ian Smith
206
Chapter 5: Philosophy
The certainty of the Ego, the doubt about the Other.
A critical perspective
Moira De Iaco
225
Uncertaintes and undetermination in the use of indexical terms:
David Kaplan and Charles S. Peirce in comparison
Luca Russo
236
2
Preface
From the 3rd to the 5th October 2012 at the University of Macerata (Italy)
was held the International Conference “The Communication of Certainty
and Uncertainty: Linguistic, Psychological, Philosophical Aspects”,
organised by me, Ramona Bongelli, Ilaria Riccioni, Carla Canestrari
(University of Macerata), prof. Sibilla Cantarini (University of Verona,
Italy) and prof. Anita Fetzer (University of Würzburg, Germany).
In addition to the three invited speakers prof. Werner Abraham
(University of Wien - Austria & Ludwig-Maximilians University of
München), prof. Elisabeth Leiss (Ludwig-Maximilians University of
München), prof. Jan Nuyts (University of Antwerp), there were 134
speakers coming from 32 different Countries of all the 5 Continents:
Germany, Austria, Belgium, Sweden, Hungary, France, Romania, United
Kingdom, Finland, Switzerland, Ukraine, Russian Federation, The
Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Norway, Italy, Canada, Colombia, México,
Brazil, South Africa, Tunisia, Lebanon, Turkey, USA, Japan, China,
Morocco, Australia, Argentina, India.
The speakers were divided in 23 Sessions (plus a poster Session):
Religion, Specific Languages, Music, Media, Law, Multimodality,
Communicative Interaction, Scientific Writing, Theory of Mind, Interaction
at School, (Un)Certainty across Age, Decision making, Humour, Politics,
Literature, Second Language and Contrastive Studies, AcademicInstitutional
Discourse,
Doctor-Patient
Interaction,
Philosophy,
Argumentation and Persuasion, and three Sessions specifically devoted to
Italian, German and French Languages.
A selection of the submitted papers is being published in different
collections. In the present volume are included some papers in English and
French concerning the following five main topics: communicative
interactions (both in ordinary and professional contexts); literature (mainly
French); media (TV, web, magazines); L1 and L2 (German, Italian,
Japanese etc.); Philosophy (Wittgenstein, Kaplan, Peirce etc.).
We wish to thank Prof. Edda Weigand, Prof. François Cooren and Dr.
Pierre-Luc Chabot for their support and assistance before and during the
editing process.
3
Chapter 1
Communicative Interactions
4
Mediation and the Uncertainty of Meaning
Bruce Fraser
Boston University, MA (USA)
bfraser@bu.edu
1.
Introduction
Mediation is a form of conflict resolution in which a third-party neutral
works with the disputing parties in an effort to achieve a resolution of their
dispute. Mediators do not have the authority to rule on the merits of the
dispute, but must use their skills to assist the parties in arriving at an
agreeable resolution. As such, mediation lies between negotiation, where
only the disputing parties (and perhaps their advocates) are present and
engaged in the discussion, and adjudication, where a judge is present (and
perhaps a jury) who has the authority to decide on the merits of the case.
Today, mediation is used successfully in a variety of areas such as disputes
between union and management, divorcing couples, community arguments,
medical malpractice issues, and insurance claims.
There are several types of mediation, although all involve a neutral party
(or parties) without authority to decide on the dispute. There is Problem
Solving Mediation, where the mediator probes the parties’ positions and
suggests alternative resolutions, sometimes suggesting what is in store for
the parties if they don’t reach agreement. There is Facilitative Mediation,
where the mediator asks questions, validates the parties point of view,
searches for underlying positions but does not make a recommendation,
does not give advice, or predict what a court would do. There is Evaluative
Mediation, where the mediator, prior to a court appearance, points out the
strengths and weaknesses of each parties’ position, predicts what is likely to
happen court, and makes recommendations. Concern here is with the
parties’ legal rights, not their interests. And finally, there is Transformative
Mediation, where the mediator attempts to empower the parties, have the
parties recognize the other’s needs, and encourages the parties to take
responsibility for the outcome but does not pressure them to settle.
In this paper I am focusing on the use of uncertain language in Problem
Solving Mediation, in particular, how it is often used in divorce disputes.
The structure of the mediation usually consists of a three-way meeting of
the parties with the mediator, where the ground rules are established and the
individuals’ current positions are presented. This is then followed by
individual meetings with each party to assess their positions (what they say
they want) as opposed to their interests (what they really want), discussions
with them on the strengths and weaknesses of their positions, on what issues
5
there might be room for compromise, predictions of what might occur if a
settlement is not reached, and the like.
Throughout all of this discussion, it is critical that the mediator control
the process by being a Transactional Leader, one who sets forth the rules in
a clear, direct fashion, provides a sense of a goal, orchestrates the moves the
parties make, and determines when there should be contact with each other.
This requires direct language with unequivocal meaning.
On the other hand, it is critical that the mediator be an interested,
sympathetic, and trusting associate of both parties, insuring that they hear
and consider the ideas set forth by the other without undue push-back. As
such, the mediator is a Transformational Leader, selling ideas and proposals,
suggesting tradeoff, in essence negotiating with each parties to bring them
closer to the other’s position. This requires indirect language with uncertain
meaning: ambiguity, hedges, mitigation, questions rather than statements,
and the like.
2.
The Case
The following illustrates both of these styles of language during a postdivorce mediation where the parties (the former husband and wife) are
disputing over the adherence to the custody agreement for their 17 year old
son, David. The mediation and the dialogue has been adapted for this paper.
Jack and Susan were married for 18 years. Jack is an insurance salesman
and Susan is an executive at Staples, Inc. They were divorced 6 months ago
for irreconcilable differences and they have sought mediation because of
arguments over the adherence to the Custody Agreement for David, their 16
year old son.
The relevant part of the Custody Agreement is the following:
1. Mother has custody of the son except: a) every other Sat and Sun; b) one
month during the summer; c) whenever the son wants to visit his father.
2. The rules for David in each home are to be jointly negotiated, are to be
flexible, reasonable, and may be changed as needed.
3.
The Initial Meeting
The mediator, as a Transactional Leader, greets the parties, asks them to get
comfortable. He then proceeds:
“I want to acquaint you with the ground rules for this mediation. After
hearing the guidelines, I will ask you to agree to abide by them”.
The mediator then states:
6
“First, there will be no yelling or insulting. Second, each of you will be
limited to 2 minutes per turn. I will stop you at that point. Third, one
person talks at a time and there will be no interrupting. Fourth,
everything that is said here is strictly confidential. Do you agree? Fifth,
after a brief joint meeting to hear your sides, I will talk to you separately.
Sixth, after two hours of trying to make progress, we will assess the
situation and will decide if we should continue. If we decide not to
continue, I will refer this case to the court for adjudication. Do we have
agreement on all of this guidelines?”
There is no doubt that the mediator is in control. His language is clear,
direct, and unambiguous. Then the mediator asks both parties to state the
nature of the dispute as they see it. The mother, Susan, responds saying that
Jack simply can’t following the rules of the Custody Agreement and it’s
driving her crazy. She gives examples:
“He doesn’t come on time to pick up David; He sends him back to her
with dirty laundry, one time including one of his own dirty t-shirt; He
has a girlfriend stay over and she frequently walk around the house
scantily dressed; He lets David watch TV programs to all hours of the
night and it affects his school; He permits David to use the Internet
unsupervised; He doesn’t insure that David does his homework; He
permits David to go out on school nights; He refuses to get a membership
in the golf club for David”.
When the father, Jack, is asked his position, he says that his former wife,
Susan, is unhappy, needs something to complain about, and most of what
she is asserting is simply untrue.
The mediator then sends each party to a separate room and begins
talking with the wife, Susan.
Mediator: That’s quite a list of issue you recited just a few minutes ago.
Tell me, what do you hope to achieve in this mediation. [Politely asking
Susan for her agenda, whatever it is at the moment. Gives her some control
over their conversation]
Susan: I want Jack to live up to the Custody Agreement.
Mediator: What does he say when you raises these issues? Incidentally, are
they all spelled out in the Custody Agreement? [Casting doubt on her
alleged violations]
Susan: He says I’m just being a bitch. Yes, I suppose they all aren’t
explicitly stated in the Agreement. [Giving a concession that there is room
for interpretation of her charges]
7
Mediator: Do you think it’s possible that the information you have been
receiving is erroneous or exaggerated? [Raising the source of the
information] And do you think Jack might believe that he is living up to the
Agreement? [Questioning whether Jack is deliberately annoying her]
At one point the following conversation occur:
Susan: Also, Jack sends his dirty laundry back with Davids.
Mediator: What does the custody agreement specify about David’s
laundry?
Susan: That I do it. Jack doesn’t have a washing machine.
Mediator: And when David brought his laundry back with some of Jack’s
with it, was it a lot?
Susan: No, actually it was only t-shirt.
Mediator: And how frequently does this occur?
Susan: Well, it only occurred once, about 3 months ago.
Mediator: And it hasn’t occurred since then. Did you say anything to Jack
about this.
Susan: No. I just washed the shirt and sent it back.
Mediator: So, maybe this is an issue that not very serious, given all the
other issues?
Later, the follow colloquy occurs:
Susan: Jack has a girlfriend, Sandy, who stays over and who walks around
scantily dressed.
Mediator: Tell me, how did you happen to learn this?
Susan: I overheard David talking to a friend about Sandy walking to the
Condo pool.
Mediator: So she presumably had on a bathing suit that would pass muster
with the Condo people where Jack lives.
Susan: Yes, I suppose so.
Mediator: And how old is David. Seventeen and a senior in high school?
Still later after Susan asserted that Jack does not enforce David doing his
homework and lets him watch TV and go out on school nights, the
following occurs:
Mediator: Incidentally, how are David’s grades in school. He’s a senior,
no?
Susan: David’s doing great. All A’s both semesters. High Honor Roll.
Mediator: Well, does it seem that he is being hurt by watching TV or
going out with friends?
Susan: I never allow it and I was not allowed to go out on school nights.
8
Mediator: Is it possible that you and Jack have slightly different levels of
tolerance for what’s permissible now.
Susan: I suppose so.
This type of fact finding continues, with the mediator constantly asking
questions or making comments that will cause Susan to be less certain of her
position.
4.
Flow of Mediation
The mediator then moves to the husband, employing the same technique:
asking questions and making statement that are aimed at casting doubt on
the accuracy and/or seriousness of the alleged infractions, and making
tentative suggestions of how each could be put to rest. The Mediator is
being a Transformation Leader, moving from party to party, seeking to gain
their trust by sympathizing with them and proposing solutions to the
individual disputed areas.
At one point, Jack loses his temper and threatens to leave, whereupon the
mediator reverts to his role of the Transactional Leader, telling Jack in
unequivocal language with an authoritarian voice the unpleasant
consequences which might arise in court, should the mediation fail. Jack
immediately calms down and the mediation continues.
In the end, Susan concedes that her concerns were not as serious as she
originally contended. Small adjustment are made in the details of the
agreement, and Jack agrees to get a membership for David in the golf club.
5.
Conclusion
All Problem Solving Mediations do not proceed as the one just described
and sometimes a resolution is not reached, even after multiple mediation
sessions. However, in each case, a successful mediator has to move from the
Transactional leader to Transformational leader and back in order to keep
the process of the mediation intact. By using direct, unequivocal language
and keeping a viable resolution in plain sight, the mediator guides the
parties towards a goal. By using language which is sometimes vague,
ambiguous, and subject to more than one interpretation, the mediator gives
the parties room to find their best position. In the end, the mediator must
return to being the Transactional Leader as the parties negotiate the end
result.
9
Does conversational humor have to be funny?
Stefania Stame
University of Bologna (Italy)
stefania.stame@unibo.it
Abstract
Koestler’s bisociation theory (1964) has been taken into account as the
cognitive framework focusing on the ability to make inferences in humor
production. Though high elaborative inferences are considered as a ‘valueadded’, it happens that verbal humor is also recognized when it appears as
lacking of meaning. Actually, humor is present in everyday conversations,
but sometimes it is not assured (i.e. certain) how to detect any humorous
gist, especially for outsiders.
Through a qualitative analysis, verbal humor in conversation has been
explored to highlight its most and less certain aspects. The main purpose of
this paper is to point out clues for fun recognition and appreciation in
various forms of verbal humor, where the inferential dynamics shifts
towards different functions.
Keywords: Humor, inferences, conversation, pragmatic functions
1.
Introduction
The general question of my paper (or, better, of these notes) arises from the
observation that while humor can be found in many sophisticated varieties,
in the form of puns, jokes, witticisms and so on, it can also be recognized
and appreciated in some uses of language which seem to be completely
devoid of wit and even of discernible meaning. This semantic weakness is
frequent in the ordinary, everyday conversations which I have examined, as
well as in many examples analyzed in the psychological and linguistic
literature on humor.
The main aim of much research in pragmatics and discourse studies is to
identify and analyze the functions that humor serves in everyday
interactions. Of course, in this framework humor different relational
functions are more prominent, though the cognitive effort to produce and to
understand humor is not taken into account. In this regard, I may say that a
large number of the examples I have observed are not very so clearly
identifiable and often seem almost unintelligible.
10
The question posed in the title, highlighting the fact that issues regarding
humor recognition and appreciation in conversation are not clear-cut, can
serve to condense some of my own certainties and uncertainties concerning
humor recognition and appreciation. It can thus serve as the focal point for
an exploration of some instances of humor in everyday talk. I will start from
some points on humor that seem fairly evident and go on to others that are
more debatable and less clear-cut. One reliable point concerns the cognitive
dynamics of bisociation, according to Koestler’s well known theory (1964).
This psychological theory focuses on the cognitive ability to make
inferences in humor production and other sorts of creativity. Starting from
this relatively solid ground, I attempt a qualitative analysis aiming to
explore different forms of humor in everyday exchanges in which the
inferential dynamics seems to slide in various directions. As a matter of fact,
humor is an activity that usually takes place in the presence of others;
people seem to be pleased when others participate. And it is this at second
level of analysis that most of the uncertainties emerge.
The examples I discuss are excerpts drawn from a corpus of recorded and
transcribed conversations in Italian (approximately 2 hours), gathered over
the last five years with the general aim of exploring various conversational
strategies, some of them unrelated to humor. The participants are native
speakers ranging in age from 25 to 65. Translating jokes can be highly
problematic, but for the sake of discussion I propose approximate
equivalents in English accompanied by glosses. Transcription rules have not
been applied.
2.
Inferences and bisociation
Humor comprehension involves inference processes by means of the
bisociation mechanism, which, in Koestler’s definition, is the simultaneous
mental association of an idea or object with two fields not ordinarily
considered to be related. The incongruous meaning inferred through this
process is assumed to be adequate and true, though unexpected. Or rather,
all too true, that is to say false, since it emerges from an unusual logical
mechanism: a meaning which appears clear and certain and, at the same
time, elusive and uncertain.
Of course, not all the inferences involved in discourse comprehension
entail humor. Humorous inferences hinge on meanings which are unusual
and intentionally not immediately accessible. The more distant the mental
fields or scripts (Raskin 1985; Attardo 2001) involved in the bisociation
process, the more difficult the inference. The more distant the scripts linked
in the bisociation, the more sophisticated the humor, presumably. Thus
inferences that are either too obvious or too obscure (i.e., requiring too
much cognitive effort) may fail as humor.
11
In everyday interactions, inference accessibility depends mainly on the
contextual coordinates of the interaction, such as the participants’ shared
knowledge and what has already emerged during the conversation. The
‘value-added’ component of humor inferences may derive from their
accessibility only to privileged participants, i.e., by exclusivity, at the cost
of running the risk of being misunderstood. In fact, some inferences are
taken to be funny only because they exclude outsiders.
The first example (1), for instance, would be virtually incomprehensible
to anyone lacking the participants’ shared knowledge. A stayed up late with
her colleagues the night before and she is complaining about her boyfriend’s
comments. B’s reply alludes to a famous phrase in Mel Brooks’ movie
“Young Frankenstein” (1974), a favorite quotation of these friends:
(1)
43. A : allora mi ha detto che avevo la faccia stanca con le occhiaie
44. B : gobba… quale gobba… (sorride)
45. A : esatto (sorride)
43. A : and then he told me that my face was tired with dark circles
under my eyes
44. B : hump… what hump (smiling)
45. A : exact (smiling)
It can also be observed that in everyday conversations humor is not always
based on inferences that are unexpected and new. Old, familiar jokes retain
their enjoyable effect, like jack-in-the-box or well known story and nursery
rhyme for children.
The persistent comic effect arising from a familiar joke can be seen as
rather amazing and paradoxical; if the joke is known and expected, why
should it be found funny? This suggests that the cognitive components in
such cases are less important than surprise or other emotional components.
In certain respects, this kind of pleasure reactions could be regarded as
analogous to primary emotions, including the difficulty in controlling them.
I am especially referring to the emotion of fear, as in this small example of a
trivial experience that can happen to anyone. Even when we know that the
dog living in the house next door is harmless, we always become frightened
when, as usual, it barks suddenly from behind the fence. In the same way,
the humorous reaction can precede our rationality and it can be dissociated
from our previous knowledge.
It is however more common for old jokes to be simply taken for granted
and as not really considered as funny. Nevertheless, this kind of humor can
be relevant in conversation, since it underlines a shared ground between
participants; in this sense, it functions as a relational device allowing the
speaker to move close to the addressee (i.e., solidarity, positive politeness).
In these cases, it is the pragmatic function of humor that comes to the
12
foreground, although the cognitive effort is weak, as we can see in
Examples (2) and (3). A (a professor) and B (a PhD student) meet in their
Department courtyard:
(2)
9. A : wow! ma è il tuo bimbo?
10. B : l’avevo portato dal dottore… e mhh…adesso… l’ho portato
qui…
11. B : ma com’è diventato grande! (sorride) Sarà iscritto
all’università (leggera risata)
12. A : sì è cresciuto…(leggera risata)
9. A : wow! is this your little boy?
10. B : I took him to the doctor… and mhh…now… I’ve brought
him here
11. C : how he’s grown! (smile) he must be enrolled university ?
(light laughter)
12. B : yes he has grown (light laughter)
Example (3) is an excerpt drawn from a popular Italian TV quiz (L’eredità,
September 2012), and features a quizmaster (QM) and a player (P). It
illustrates how even rather feeble humor may be effective in bringing to the
foreground pragmatic functions of humor, which may include social control,
affiliation, politeness and the like. In this case, the humor lies in an
untranslatable play on words - “Cipro” (Cyprus, the answer the contestant is
proposing) and “ci provo” (I’m trying/guessing, in the phonological
expansion ci + pro + vo):
(3)
QM : allora la risposta… qual è la risposta?
P : cipro… provo! Ci…pro…provo(ridacchiando) ci… provo…
QM : ok cipro…viamo (ride) ci… proviamo (leggera risata)
A freely rendition conserving both meanings:
QM : so the answer… what’s the answer?
P : Cyprus I’ll try! I’m guessing (amused voice) I’m… trying
QM : ok cyprus we’ll try…(laughter) let’s… try (chuckle)
Encoding her answer as a pun, P employs a verbal joke based on assonance
both to cope with her awkwardness at being uncertain about the correct
answer and to elicit a sympathetic response from the addressee, QM, and the
audience. And in fact, P’s move achieves the goal: her pun produces a
positive reaction. QM not only adopts the same assonance, but he extends
her joke emphasizing his sharing through the use of the inclusive plural first
person (i.e., “we”). This instance shows how humor can serve more than
13
one intra- and interpersonal functions, such as releasing tension, defending
the self, creating solidarity.
3. A pragmatic perspective
In the General Theory of Verbal Humor (1991) Raskin and Attardo
distinguish between the Semantics of Humor and the Pragmatics of Humor.
A further distinction made by Attardo (2001) differentiates between Humor
Competence (HC) and Humor Performance (HP). HC regards the speaker’s
ability to recognize and to understand a sentence as funny (i.e., the
semantic, cognitive level); this level is connected with the humor
mechanism. HP takes into account the humorous intentions and its uses by
actual participants in a given interactional context as well as their reactions
(i.e. the pragmatic level).
On the pragmatic level, the functions of humor in the interaction are
crucial. We know in fact that in everyday conversations humor may serve
various functions (Attardo 2001), including group affiliation, rectractability,
social control, de-commitment and the like. As noted by Brown and
Levinson (1987), Holmes (2000) and Stame (2010, 20121), humor in
conversation may function as both positive and negative politeness.
Besides humor’s functional aspects, a pragmatic analysis needs to take
into account the contributions of all the participants in the conversation, not
only that of the one who delivers the humor. Participants’ reactions are also
embedded in a conversational sequence. Contextual, verbal and non-verbal
markers can suggest to participants that an act should be assumed to be
funny, although some (e.g., laughter or a lack of reaction) can be rather
ambiguous and difficult to decode. And contrary to the common view that
laughter is elicited by external stimuli, in conversation participants are
frequently to laugh after their own utterances. Laughter (or smiling) is often
only a paralinguistic device by which the speaker shows that the utterance is
meant to be humorous. The same metalinguistic function can be recognized
in a hearer’s laughter (or smiling), when it signals that the speaker’s
utterances have not be taken seriously. (Jefferson, Sacks, Schegloff 1987;
Hay 2000).
According to Hay’s four-stages model (2008), recognizing humor, on the
one hand, is not always the same as understanding it: speakers’ non verbal
markers can lead hearers to realize that an utterance is intended as humorous
even when they do not actually understand it. On the other hand,
recognizing humor and understanding it do not necessarily entail enjoyment
and acceptance: the person who complains that a sarcastic joke is not
amusing has obviously recognized it as something that was supposed to be
funny.
14
Assuming the speech acts perspective, Attardo (2001) argues that humor
recognition means that a participant has recognized the humorous intention
of the acts of another or others. Recognition, however, does not necessarily
involve an agreement to cooperate in the ongoing conversational level (i.e.
humor). Humor acceptance means that a participant agrees to cooperate
actively at the same discourse level proposed by the other participant(s).
Attardo calls this cooperative attitude mode adoption. In his account, mode
adoption concerns the participant’s willingness to share the same script or
Mental Model (MM) (Johnson Laird 1983) adopted by other participant(s).
Along with the notion of MM, Context Model, the construct proposed by
Teun van Dijk (1997; 2006), is particularly useful in discourse analysis.
According to him, Context Models refer not only to actual spaces, to
“observable” situations, but also to inner context representations, that is to
say, the mental interpretation of specific contexts (Stame 20122).
In short, these mental structures provide people with relevant information
about peculiar elements and conventions of a given entity and on how it is
dynamically organized. They concern not only the certainty of the ordinary
objects and events of the real world, but also the uncertainty of imaginary
worlds. Of course, acceptance of a “possible world” requires participants’
temporary “suspension of disbelief” without regard to its plausibility
(Coleridge [1817] 1985, 314).
Mode adoption is frequently expressed by participants when they extend
a joke in subsequent turns, e.g., when they come up with variations on the
same theme. Willingness to extend the humorous exchange is one way of
acknowledgement and expressing appreciation of the humor. This kind of
cooperative agreement between participants is evident in both Example (3)
above, and even more notably in Example (4) below.
Mode adoption through the extension of humor is typically present in the
conversational phenomenon called Comical Hypothetical (CH) (Winchatz,
Kozin 2008). CH is a kind of humorous discourse co-produced during the
conversation where one or more participants share in the creation of an
imaginary world, as they do in Example (4). CH requires of course
participants’ temporary “suspension of disbelief”.
The following example (4) is an excerpt drawn from a telephone call. It
shows how interlocutors can collaborate by displaying shared cultural and
relational knowledge to co-create an imaginary situation. The background of
this exchange is the fact that V’s son is not completing his degree as quickly
as she hoped:
(4)
32. S : mi ha detto che l’ha fatto
33. V : guarda… quando si laurea giuro che vado a San Luca a
piedi…
34. S : in ginocchio…
15
35. V : in ginocchio ci vado…e… sui…ceci…compro un sacchetto di
ceci quelli secchi e
36. S : e poi ci mangiamo un sacco di panelle a cena sabato
37. V : così mi portano all’ospedale
32. S : he told me that he passed it [his examination]
33. V : look when he graduates I vow I’ll go on foot to San Luca
34. S : on your knees
35. V : on my knees…and…on…chickpeas…I’ll buy a bag of
chickpeas the dry ones and
36. S : and then we’ll eat a lot of panelle for dinner on Saturday
37. V : so that I’ll be taken to hospital
S starts off with reference to a real-life event, V’s son passing his last exam,
a step towards his degree. V (33) responds wryly, inventing an unlikely
scenario: that when her son graduates, she will carry out the traditional way
of expressing gratitude for grace received, making the long uphill trek to a
local church. She thereby shifts from a real event to a hypothetical one. S
collaborates by raising the stakes of improbability: V will not merely go on
foot but on her knees, S’s response is consistent with the unlikely scenario
invented by V: i.e., she uses mode adoption. V further raises the stakes with
an even more absurd addition to the imaginary scenario (35): kneeling, once
a punishment for misbehavior, could be made even more painful with dry
chickpeas. S (36) promptly steps up the absurdity by bringing panelle, a dish
made with chickpea flour. This takes the exchange to yet another level (or
mode), which is immediately adopted by V (37) and raised again, to a
hospital emergency.
4.
Conclusive remarks
Bisociation has been taken into account as the main inferential mechanism
underlying humor in conversation. Due to this cognitive specificity, humor
can also be seen to be a cooperative activity aimed at eliciting amusement
among participants in talk. However, while it easy enough to identify
frequent instances of humor in everyday conversations, it is often more
difficult, especially for an outsider, to detect any real comic content. That is
to say, it would seem that conversational humor can succeed without
actually being very funny.
This paper identifies specific discourse strategies which, along with
verbal and non verbal markers, are the necessary clues that permit the
recognition and appreciation of humor. When humor is strictly context
bound, as it often is in conversations, stylistic strategies can evoke, clearly
or less explicitly, suitable cognitive structures for producing and
16
understanding humor, such as scripts or MMs. These strategies are
functionally analogous to the typical metalinguistic strategies which provide
a reader/hearer with the adequate frame in various kind of narratives.
According to Attardo (2001), humor enjoyment depends not only on sharing
the MMs evoked, but also on adopting them. The cooperative creation of
imaginary worlds, i.e., the Comical Hypothetical phenomenon (Winchatz,
Kozin 2008), has been considered here as a variation on the mode adoption
theme.
These discursive strategies and the cooperative nature of humor come to
the fore especially when other interactional functions are prominent, such as
group affiliation, social control, negative or positive politeness. This might
be regarded as a sort of conclusion tying together my certainties on
conversational humor touched on short review. But uncertainties remain.
Although it happens less frequently, people may also react to jokes even
when they are alone, especially in the presence of emotional factors such as
intense surprise. However, if caught in the act of enjoying jokes by
themselves, people are usually embarrassed and feel obliged to account for
it: like soliloquy, solo laughter appears socially suspect (Goffman 1981).
One could suggest that any individual, ‘monologic’ situation actually
includes the presence of others. Like irony, humor might well be considered
as “polyphonic” (Bakhtin 1963; Mizzau 1984). But all this needs to be
verified with regard to the enjoyment of humor. To appease my sense of
uncertainty, I would like to suggest that, in one way or another, humor is
most suitable and appreciable when shared. Veale (2004) argues that social
beings are by nature adapted to seek humor wherever it is possible. This
predisposition towards humor in advance might be the reason why in
conversation humor is so frequently preferred as a strategy for achieving
many relational functions, making it a kind of ‘value-added’ component.
References
Attardo, Salvatore. 2001. “Humor and Irony in Interaction: From Mode
Adoption to Failure of Detection.” In Say not to Say: New
perspectives on miscommunication, ed. by Luigi Anolli, Rita Ciceri,
and Giuseppe Riva, 166-185. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
Bakhtin, Mikhail. 1963. Problemy Poétiki Dostoevskogo. Moskow (It. Tr.
Dostoevskij. Torino: Einaudi, 1968).
Brown, Penelope, and Levinson Stephen C. 1987. Politeness: Some
Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. 1985. “Biographia Literaria 1817.” In Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, ed. by Heather Joanna Jackson, 314. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
17
van Dijk, Teun. 1997. “Cognitive Context Models and Discourse”. In
Language Structure, Discourse, and Access to Consciousness, ed. by
Stamenov Maxim, 189-226. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
van Dijk, Teun. 2006. “Discourse, Context and Cognition.” Discourse
Studies 8: 159-177.
Goffman, Erving. 1981. Forms of Talk. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hay, Jennifer. 2000. “Functions of Humor in the Conversations of Men and
Women.” Journal of Pragmatics 32: 709-742.
Hay, Jennifer. 2008. “The Pragmatics of Humor Support”. Humor.
International Journal of Humor Research 14 (1): 55-82.
Holmes, Janet. 2000. “Politeness, Power and Provocation: How Humour
Functions in the Workplace.” Discourse Studies 2 (2): 159-185.
Jefferson, Gail, Harvey Sacks and Emanuel A. Schegloff. 1987. “Notes on
Laughter in the Pursuit of Intimacy.” In Talk and Social
Organization, ed. by Graham Button and John R.E. Lee, 152-205.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Johnson Laird, Philip N. 1983. Mental Models. Towards a Cognitive
Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Koestler, Arthur. 1964. The Act of Creation. London: Hutchinson & Co.
Mizzau, Marina. 1984. L’Ironia - La contraddizione consentita. Milano:
Feltrinelli.
Raskin, Victor. 1985. Semantic mechanism of humor. Dordrecht: D. Reidel
Publishing Company.
Raskin, Victor, and Salvatore Attardo. 1991. “Script theory revis(it)ed: joke
similarity and joke representation model.” Humor 4: 293-347.
Stame, Stefania. 2010. “Funzioni dell’umorismo nelle interazioni
quotidiane.” In forme e spazi della comunicazione, ed. by Renata
Galatolo, and Roberta Lorenzetti, 41-52. Bologna: CLUEB.
Stame, Stefania. 20121. “On Some Functions of Humor in Everyday
Interactions.” In Laughing in Chinese, ed. by Paolo Santangelo: 437443. Roma: Aracne.
Stame, Stefania. 20122. “On Slama-Cazacu’s ‘Context’ and Other
Recontestualized Contexts.” In Applied Psycholinguistics. Positive
effects and ethical perspectives, ed. by. Giuseppe Mininni and
Amelia Manuti: 129-135. Milano: FrancoAngeli.
Veale, Tony. 2004. “Incongruity in Humor: Root Cause or
Epiphenomenon?” Humor. International Journal of Humor Research
17 (4): 419-428.
Winchatz, Michaela R., and Alexander Kozin. 2008. “Comical hypothetical:
arguing for a conversational phenomenon.” Discourse Studies 10 (3):
383-405.
18
Development of motor communication skills at school
Lucie Mougenot
University of Paris Descartes (France)
lucie.mougenot@laposte.net
Abstract
Although it is not a specific school curriculum subject in France,
communication is a crucial educational challenge in the perspective of the
achievement of social skills and the preparation for future life. Physical
Education classes and especially during group activities, students learn to
communicate and interact with their bodies. This form of motor
communication develops through motor and cognitive learning. We present
the findings of a study conducted in high school in the field of collective
sport: communication is the fundamental element of the game structure,
because uncertainty is indeed manipulated by opponents. Our results show
that both communication and counter-communication are major educational
objectives, and progress in this field is fundamental.
Keywords: Motor communication; physical education; collective game;
communication skills.
1. Introduction
Communication is at the center of collective activities where the
achievement of a task requires adjusting to the behaviors of others. In this
sense we refer to interaction or reciprocal relationships requiring
communication. According to Abric (1996), communication can be defined
as all processes whereby exchanges of data and meanings are conducted
between individuals in a social situation. The situation of communication
involves the presence of two persons, but who are not merely a transmitter
and a receiver, as Shannon specified in his theory of information (1952).
Indeed, the reciprocal relationship induces mutual dependence, thus
requiring an accommodation of people engaged in an interaction.
Although it is not a specific school curriculum subject in France,
communication is a crucial educational challenge in the perspective of the
achievement of social skills and the preparation for future life (Simonpoli
1991). Communication is a central issue at school, through interaction,
adaptation to others or expression of ideas. Most of the time, it is written or
19
oral. However, another, more original form is taught: body communication.
As early as infant school in France, expressing oneself with one’s body
appears to be a fundamental issue (school curriculum, 2008). Indeed, in
Physical Education classes and especially during group activities, students
learn to communicate and interact with their bodies. This form of motor
communication develops through motor and cognitive learning because it is
necessary to process information, based on which an appropriate decision is
made which should lead to the performance of the desired action. Abric
(1996) indicates that communication is a complex system, as we will meet
many difficulties. Motor communication is an enhancing factor of
difficulties since it involves all the errors that stem from the realization of
actions. Even if motor learning is the leading pedagogical purpose of
physical education, decision-making is equally important, mainly in
collective activities where the communication of decisions is specific:
information can be effectively transmitted, but it can also be hidden or
distorted.
Here we focus on learning which takes place in collective situations
(social situation), where the player is not alone, but is in the presence of
opponents or partners (Parlebas 1992). These situations are experienced in
interaction, that is to say the subject adapts his or her own behavior to the
behaviors of others, and vice versa. It would be irrelevant for a player not to
consider the other players. Success in these activities depends on the
development of cognitive and motricity skills; this type of learning is
defined as students’ ability to communicate certainty to their partners, and
uncertainty to their opponents (Ripoll 2008) in a situation constrained by the
rules of the game. However, this ability to communicate involves both very
rapid decision-making as regards motor action, and its implementation with
respect to communication codes which are specific to the game.
We here present the findings of a study conducted in high school in the
field of collective sports. We investigated in the development of non-verbal
communication skills in physical education classes. Since in team sports the
goal is to defeat the opponents, the instructor teaches students to convey
certainty towards partners, and uncertainty towards opponents by spreading
false information or delaying signs announcing their intentions. All the
communicative actions of players are listed and classified after deferred
observation of their motor actions to cooperate or oppose. Student progress
is then assessed after eight sessions. Our results show students made
progress in achieving the skills defined by the curriculum through better
communication. For instance, we observed more motor actions to
communicate intentions to partners (aid, support…) and to create
uncertainty to deceive opponents. Body communication and ability to
“read” the bodies of others are fundamental aspects of learning. Even if
motor action is decisive to success, it is also essential to give information
about or to conceal one’s intentions.
20
2.
Skill development in collective games
First, game learning is collective. Students cannot learn on their own,
because they need to adapt their own behaviors to the behaviors of others,
while playing by the rules of the game. In physical education classes,
students act in restrained groups which define themselves as structured sets
of people. These individuals have the ability to perceive themselves in their
environment and to interact directly by participating in a collective activity,
with a rule system and formal or informal standard system (Abric 1986).
Skill development in collective sports is located within this framework.
Students interact in order to score more points than their opponents and
eventually win the game. However, interactions are mainly carried out
through body movements; these actions make sense for others. We are
located here in a semantic perspective. Learning in small groups at school
requires taking major constraints into account. These are represented by the
rules and the necessary adaptation to other players to achieve an operative
goal. The adaptation requires communication between players, which falls
into two categories: first, the communication of certainty actions between
members of the same team; then, communication of uncertainty between
members of opposing teams.
This variance is essential, since it arises from the internal logic, from the
essence of collective sports: these are collective activities where cooperation
within a team serves a common opposition purpose. The goals of the two
teams are contradictory: it is crucial to impart one’s game intentions to
partners and feint them or hide them from opponents. The control of the
game and the achievement of a skill level defined by school curricula
govern this motor communication. In these collective activities with
cooperation and opposition, uncertainty is indeed manipulated by
opponents: ambiguity underlies adverse actions to hide intentions, mislead
or delay information.
The involvement of uncertainty in team sports can be described in three
different perspectives (Mario 1992). First of all, uncertainty can be
temporal, that is to say players try to conceal when exactly they will act
from their opponents. Then, uncertainty is spatial; players do not know
where the action will occur on the sports field. Finally, the action itself is
uncertain, since players do not know what specific type of action will occur.
These three types of uncertainty are constantly manipulated by the two
teams. They deceive their opponents as they do the best to inform their
partners about the following events. According to Menaut (1998),
uncertainty is a pivotal element of all life activities. However, it remains the
fundamental element of the game structure, which accounts for the fact that
uncertainties encountered in the game reach a level of uncommon intensity.
21
3.
Analysis of player’s decisions
We conducted a study grounded on research in praxeology by Parlebas
(1981). This science of motor action allows us to define the situation,
actions, gestures and signs of individuals based on their roles and sub-roles
defined by the game. Then a detailed analysis of the situation is
indispensable to understand individual decisions. Everyone has a freedom of
action in the game, but this freedom is developed in a specific context
defined by the rules, rights and duties of each player in accordance with
their specific role.
In this collective context, it is essential to fully understand the
communication network which is specific to the game: Bavelas (1948), then
Abric (1986) and Parlebas (1981), notice that all group phenomena are
determined by the properties of a communication network. This network is
represented by the set of channels allowing for data transmission (see figure
1).
Team A
Team B
Figure 1 : the network in the collective sport.
Caption 1:
: Player
_____________: cooperative relationship between members of the same team.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _: adversarial relationship between members of opposing teams.
Collective sports involve a symmetrical communication system excluding
paradoxical relationships, i.e. each player always communicates certainty
22
with the same people and uncertainty with the others, without possible
change during the game1.
This communication network diagram can be applied to all sports; it
allows us to understand the actions of the players: for example,
communication will differ according to who interprets or is reading the
message. For instance, a player will show signs of a pass to his partner and
at the same time he will try to delay these signs or hide them from his
opponents by playing faster.
The observation of players in action can convey an impression of
disorder, but the trajectories and gestures of each one of them follow the
logic of the game. They are reflective of the evolution of the game, and
especially of the players’ roles. Everyone is trying to communicate with
other players in terms of the configuration of the game at any specific time.
Students’ assessment during the game was complex to achieve.
Questions arose which determined our study design. The most crucial
involved the nature of the indicators which could allow us to effectively
estimate their level and their progress considering the variety of actions
performed.
We present a study which we conducted in order to accurately appraise
students' progress in team sports, mainly in their ability to communicate
with their partners and counter-communicate with their opponents: in other
words, we endeavored to describe communication actions and locate them
in space and time, because an important element is to communicate the
appropriate information at the right place and at the right time.
4. Methodology
We detail an example of a high school class (16-year-old pupils) in France:
these students realized a basketball sequence of eight sessions. We filmed
them during the first and last sessions to observe all actions performed by
each player according to game situation. The teams were the same in these
two sessions: they were mixed and homogeneous in level of play.
To measure student skill development, we built an observation grid
identifying all motor actions displayed during the game. We were inspired
by the work of Dugas (2006) and Oboeuf (2010) who investigated
communication in collective games and provided insight into all possible
communication actions. We identified all actions as being favorable to the
1
In some traditional games, however, such paradoxical relationships can be involved so
that a participant may choose to play in cooperation with or opposition to the other players
throughout the game and may modify his choices regarding these relationships at any time
in the game. Such game features induce high uncertainty.
23
game (see table 1); these actions aim to keep the ball, or to recover it for the
team that does not have it.
Direct
communication
Indirect
communication
Toward opponent
Toward partner
Winning a duel
Shooting in a favorable position
Getting the ball back after an
opponent shooting Intercepting the
ball
Passing
Getting the ball after a partner
shooting
Dribbling to keep the ball
Getting a lost ball back
Preventing opponent pass
Being in the way of opponent
Hampering a shooting
Taking up position in defense
Taking up position to get the ball
back after an opponent shooting
Feinting
Moving in a free space
Taking up position to get the
ball back after a partner
shooting
Table 1: Favorable actions during the game, between partners or opponents.
We identified four different categories among these favorable actions:
1.
2.
Direct communication: these actions are defined as contacts with
another player which directly involve the ball. These actions are
generally viewed by the spectator because they are located in the space
near the ball. They can be oriented:
a. Toward an opponent, in order to take his ball or score a point.
b. Toward a partner to keep the ball and progress toward the target; this
concerns dribbling, passing, recovery after a missed shot.
Indirect communication: it occurs next to the main action, and relates to
the game without the ball. These actions can be oriented:
a. Toward an opponent when the player hinders information, prevents
an opponent from passing the ball, or prepares a more direct action.
b. Toward a partner when the player moves to help his friend with the
ball, to keep it and approach the target.
Observation and statement of actions of each player were deferred for
delayed observation. This allowed watching slow motion pictures, which
could not be possible by direct observation.
Then, in order to measure development of skills and progress, we
differentiated actions in favor of continuous play (successful actions,
24
efficient indirect communication) and actions leading to inefficiency or
failure (loss of ball, inappropriate movement). Then, unfavorable actions are
being defined (see table 2).
Toward opponent
Toward partner
Direct
communication
Offence on player
Lost duel
Shooting in unfavorable
position
Intercepted pass
Badly parametrized pass
Infringement of rules of play
Loss of ball control
Indirect
communication
Lack of defense
Inactivity on opposite
shooting
Lack of sensible placement or
movement in defense
Lack of attack
Lack of sensible placement or
movement in attack.
Table 2: Communication actions which are unfavorable to the game.
Records of each player’s actions take into account the efficiency of an
action in the larger framework of the game. Since every act of
communication takes place at a specific time and place, these parameters are
essential for judging whether it is appropriate or not. Consequently, we used
wide shots to locate the action at all times and reveal its full meaning.
5.
Results
For the whole class we observed significant progress between session 1 and
session 8, which varied according to type of communication.
The number of actions in each category is calculated for the whole class
and compared between the two sessions so as to provide a vision of progress
(see figure 2). We noted that students made more progress in indirect
communication actions, that is to say, in the game without the ball. Those
are actions which do not seem essential at first sight. Sometimes they give
uninitiated people an impression of disorder. These mainly concern
movements during the game.
25
Actions of effective communication
intercepting the ball
moving in a free space
session 8
preventing opponent pass
session 1
passing
shooting in a favorable position
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 2: Examples of communication actions which are successful during the game.
This figure (2) shows that students’ progress varies in extent according to
the types of communication involved. We noted that movement in offensive
game, which pertains to indirect communication, is paramount and occupies
a lot of space in the game. Progress in this field was also important: efficient
movements in attack rose from 395 to 624. Likewise, the number of
interceptions and shots diminished. Still, this can be explained by the fact
that interceptions are much more difficult to achieve since progress in
movement and effective aid for partners was important. Students took up
better positions to receive the ball, and interceptions were thus more
difficult to anticipate for the defenders. Indeed, the number of passes
increased by 47% (from 152 to 224 passes) and the number of passes
intercepted or lost remained the same, which reflects a more efficient
placement and movement of the players.
By contrast, in the area of basket shooting, which is the central element
of the game, there was no progression. Indeed, the number of successful
shootings increased slightly (from 22% to 24%); however, the total number
of shootings increased significantly, from 44 to 94. A detailed analysis of
our results allowed us to find that it was specifically before shootings
occurred that pupils’ progress was most remarkable. Students moved about
in a more effective fashion, understood each other better and thus managed
to successfully deceive opponents. Increase in the number of scored points
did not depend on more effective shooting but on better communication
between players.
We also sought to determine whether the number of unfavorable actions
had diminished or progressed (see figure 3).
26
Actions of ineffective communication
loss of ball control
Badly parametrized pass
session 8
Lack of sensible placement or
movement in defense
session 1
Lack of defense
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Figure 3 : examples of communication actions which are ineffective during the game.
In view of those results, we may be tempted to draw inaccurate conclusions.
For example, there is a sharp increase in ball loss after poor control of the
ball (from 24 to 44): one may indeed wonder whether this is not indicative
of poorer level of play. However, the inclusion of another parameter is
necessary, because the total number of actions increased greatly; the game is
played faster, and there is an increased defensive pressure. It requires faster
decision-making and more rapid actions, causing more errors in player
coordination.
Indeed, the total number of motor actions increased from 2,320 to 3,026,
which represents a 30% increase for the same amount of playing time.
Finally, depending on the nature of communication actions, the students’
results and progress differed. We can observe a significant increase in
actions conducive to a continuous play, but also an increase in direct actions
unfavorable to the game. The greater density of actions brings difficulties in
terms of information and decision-making, causing more errors (ball
control, shooting in a disadvantageous position with a better defense).
We conducted a chi-square test of independence (2) on the evolution of
students’ assessed levels: results show very significant progress in all
actions (p = 0.001). However, those differences are most remarkable in the
reduced number of adverse and indirect communication actions. This
concerns a decrease in movements inappropriate to the situation, in attack
and defense.
27
Evolution of the favorable actions
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
direct communication
800
indirect communication
600
400
200
0
session 1
session 8
Figure 4 : Evolution of communication actions favorable to the play; results in
number.
We can observe an increase in the number of effective actions (see figure 4),
both in direct and indirect communication. The number of favorable actions
in the game is larger at the end of the learning sequence, reflecting students’
progress. This information can be related to the assessment of unfavorable
actions.
Another results show us that the number of ineffective actions decreased
but only as concerns indirect communication (see figure 5).
28
1200
Evolution of unfavorable actions
1000
800
600
direct communication
indirect communication
400
200
0
session 1
séance 8
Figure 5 : Evolution of unfavorable communication actions; results in numbers.
Players’ positions and movements, when they do not have the ball, are more
numerous and more effective. Nonetheless, the number of direct,
unfavorable actions also increased. This is a surprising result, which seems
to stand in contradiction to the others. But although this increase can be
perceived as indicative of regression, it reflects a more effective game.
However, these direct, unfavorable actions were not numerous enough to
allow us to consider the evolution to be significant. As we saw earlier, the
increase in direct game errors is mainly attributable to a faster game.
6.
Discussion
The use of a communication based on certainty or uncertainty is inherent to
collective games, as appears from an in-depth analysis of the different forms
of communication in such contexts. Grandjouan (1951) considers that
uncertainty, far from harming the game, is its pivotal element. The game
would be impossible otherwise. The development of the relevant
communication skills is partly contradictory, because it is necessary to
communicate our intentions to our partners and at the same time to hide
them from our opponents. All behaviors are communication actions.
As argued by theorists from the Palo Alto school such as Watzlawick, it
is not possible not to communicate. Even the lack of willingness or the
willingness not to communicate with others are signs of communication.
The latter does not have an inverse, which is especially true of team play.
29
Indeed students who do not participate in attack or defense show others
signs of disengagement.
Communication actions are either effective or ineffective. Inefficiency
results from an inappropriate decision or a desire not to communicate, but
this behavior is a sign that we can interpret. We find these behaviors with
players who do not move or do not participate in attack or defense. Refusing
to participate is a form of communication that we considered in our
research. We noted progress in this respect for our players, with fewer
passive conducts in session 8.
The fact that we cannot escape communication is a real problem when
we want to communicate with partners and simultaneously conceal – or
delay – the same information from our opponents. Here lies the challenge of
group games: both communication and counter-communication are major
educational objectives, and progress in this field is fundamental to achieve
the skills defined by school curricula.
Pupils’ progress is far from being the mere consequence of improved
motricity, even if the latter is an essential factor. It also stems from an
enhanced ability to read or decode information transmitted by others, and to
communicate or hide intentions by body movements. Although we do not
notice progress in motor actions like dribbling or successful shooting,
results are positive mainly in the game around the ball. Movements are part
of motor learning because they are not trivial but meaningful in this context.
Our results show significant progress as reflected by an increase in
defensive movements to stop opponents and movements to help partners in
attack situations.
Unfortunately, indirect communication actions are not the main focus of
spectators and the media. Indeed, search statistics to assess the level of top
teams in team sports is not very productive; apart from number of goals,
successful passes, differences in score, all the available statistics concern the
game with the ball. But in a football match with twenty-two players, for
how long does each player retain the ball? Is it technique with the ball that
defines a talented player? Is there no other requirement to analyze
effectiveness in a team? In view of the results of our study, learning to play
without the ball is fundamental, and one obviously cannot ignore ball
position. Any movement is operated within a specific context, around the
position of the ball.
The difficulty of collective games is that the pressure of time is very
important, which represents constraint for players. It is fundamental to
decide and act quickly to constantly adapt. The originality and difficulty of
learning are related to appropriate decision-making and its implementation
in a very short time frame.
An individual acting in game situation is compelled to act immediately;
the in vivo observation allows us to identify skills spurred into action by
relevant decision-making. Thus, the group is essential to allow each
30
individual to learn. The psychosocial perspective of learning, reflecting
interaction between players (Zajonc 1968), places the group in the center of
the device. For Lewin (1948), the group must be considered as a set of
interdependent people; the group situation influences individuals’ behaviors.
An individual within a group is different from an isolated individual because
a group is subject to a system of forces. In team play, students constantly
adapt to the context in deciding at any given time how to communicate
nonverbally with others. The study of informational processes and decisionmaking in interaction situations is fundamental and helps to define learning
objectives and then to evaluate progress.
The interest of games to study the mechanisms of communication is
multiple: according to Abric (1987) the game is a situation which often
leads to conflicting incentives between teams. This is always the case in
modern sports (handball, basketball, football…) where two teams compete
under the same rules, with the same rights and duties. The situation of these
games is often simple, but produces differentiated behaviors. Moreover, the
game allows to determine an objective interdependence between the players
(Apfelbaum 1967), which is defined by the rules and the matrix of gains.
This enables to distinguish between behaviors resulting from the situation
and those arising from the interaction. The game is a situation of social
interaction and as such, is well-suited for analyzing human behavior. Pascal
and Fermat already studied games, in1654 (Tannery et al. 1891-1922) in the
perspective of the uncertainty of game probability in the decision. The game
is indeed an ideal object to study and observe. Choices and available time
are limited by the formalization, that is to say the strict context which allows
observation and analysis of behavior.
Then, uncertainty is in the center of games, and it is the object of specific
learning processes at school. We can only find this specificity in physical
education. Generally, in everyday life, people try to overcome the
uncertainty. People want to control events, but the development of
communication skills requires taking into account the creation of
uncertainty, which then allows pupils to read or decode the actions of
others. Here is an important challenge in the education of children; it
concerns the control of the body, and the knowledge of the meaning of
motor actions. The stake in team games is communicational, in a defined
frame.
However, the development of communication skills is not limited to the
specific context of the practice of modern sports in physical education
classes. Other situations are favorable and more open like traditional games.
Possibilities in terms of communication actions are much more important,
because the rules of the games are less defined and they allow a freer
expression of the self. Interactions are also more interesting and richer, from
an educational perspective.
31
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Personality and Social Psychology Monographs 9 (2, Part 2): 1-27.
32
Counseling and reduction of uncertainty.
Some educational perspectives
Stefano Polenta
University of Macerata (Italy)
stefano.polenta@unimc.it
Abstract
This paper investigates, on the side of counseling, the theme of the
uncertainty of a piece of information communicated by a speaker.
This uncertainty derives, according to Carl Rogers, perhaps the most
influential figure in the modern conception of counseling, from a difficulty
that a person experiences in communicating first to himself, then to the
others, his own visceral and deep emotional reactions connected to a certain
situation perceived as being problematic.
This paper aims to examine how a particular counseling relationship may
reduce this uncertainty. This can be proved by reinterpreting the counseling
relationship in the light of the epistemology of complex dynamic systems
and of Sander’s psychoanalytic approach inspired by this and by
highlighting the educational implications.
Keywords: Counseling, relational field, Self decentralization/re-centering
1. Counseling: a new / old practice
In this first section the main aspects of counseling and its history will be
highlighted. From them definitions and perspectives essential for further
investigation will come.
Giving an unambiguous definition of counseling is not easy. The
etymology of the word coming from English “to counsel” and, in turn, from
Latin “consulere” and has many different meanings (Fulcheri and Savini
2011): to consult, to deliberate, to reflect, to ponder, to console, to comfort,
to cure and take care, to help, to provide for someone, to be worried, to
advise. Of these meanings the ones have been recently taken into
consideration concerning “take care of”, “help” (Di Fabio 1999; Calvo
2009, 15). And this with good reason, as we will prove, as counseling is
specifically characterized by empathetic and accepting listening, by a kind
of relationship valorizing the way of feeling and being of a person. This
kind of relationship is “transformative”, as we will explain later on.
33
There are different types of counseling depending on the countries it
developed, and on the contexts and historical periods. In the United States,
initially, it was work counseling, in the strict sense of the word but
consistent with the Taylorist work approach of the time – that is the
identification of the jobs more appropriate to the characteristics of a certain
worker. In Germany, the first counseling services can be traced back to the
time of the Prussian state (Moodley et al. 2013, 293).
But Rollo May (1939) and Carl Rogers (1942), founders of humanistic
psychology, that, in the ‘40s, started to use the word in a new way explicitly
connected to the development and the realization of the person. They
maintain that the individual is not only in need of guidance and direction,
but he is capable of “self-orientation” and “self-heading”, unless, in the
course of his development, he was deterred, or certain situations repressed
his inborn ability to evaluate the meaning of the experience of Himself in
the world. In fact, in each individual there is an “organismic valuing
process” of the experience and an “actualizing tendency” that leads him to
gradually conquer ever more integrated and higher levels of “functioning”.
This capacity the individual has to self-orientate and to develop can be
recovered, as we said before, if the counselor establishes with him an
accepting and empathetic relationship: the individual, accepted and
understood, becomes capable of self-acceptance and self-understanding.
Therefore according to May and Rogers, counseling is not so much a
technique that aims to provide solutions, but a way
to assist the individual to grow, so that he can cope with the present
problem and with later problems in a better-integrated fashion. If he can
gain enough integration to handle one problem in more independent,
more responsible, less confused, better-organized ways, then he will also
handle new problems in that manner (Rogers 1942, 28-29. Italics of the
author).
From that time counseling will concentrate on “helping a person to help
himself”, achieving higher levels of autonomy and “empowerment”, now a
widespread word.
Whichever approach the counselor uses the fundamental purpose is the
autonomy of the “client”, his capacity : to make his own choices, take
decisions and put them in place (British Association of Counselling,
BAC 1990).
As counseling aims to support the subject in the development of his
autonomy and his ability to take self-determining decisions, it works in a
field of great interest to education. The closeness between counseling and
education is also demonstrated by some evolution of Rogers’s thought. In
34
fact, starting from the assumptions that underlie his idea of a person, Rogers
developed a theory of education based on the ground “philosophy” that if
individuals (children, students, workers etc.) feel they are understood in
their authenticity, they will tend to mobilize powerful energies, by sharing
rules and common projects and “co-constructing their future” in an ever new
and creative way. It is a positive vision of man, often accused of looking
only at the good sides of human nature. This perhaps is partially true, owing
to the substantial lack in Rogers’s thought of the destructive forces (Rogers
and Buber 1960) – but undoubtedly, partially, wrong, as it highlights the
constructive forces that inhabit the human being. Thomas Gordon managed
to extend Rogers’s thinking to many educational types of relationships:
parent-child (1970), school (1974), work (company) (1977) by means of
rigorously scientific books as well as by a powerful widespreading ability.
Not entirely clear is the relationship between counseling and
psychotherapy. Literature shows difficulty in identifying exactly when it has
to talk about one or the other. Rogers wrote:
There has been a tendency to use the term counseling for more casual and
superficial interviews, and to reserve the term psychotherapy for more
intensive and long-continued contacts directed toward deeper
reorganization of the personality. While there may be some reason for
this distinction, it is also plain that the most intensive and successful
counseling is indistinguishable from intensive and successful
psychotherapy (Rogers 1942, 3-4).
With regard to this the differentiation is used between counseling in the
strict sense and counseling skills. The latter is used in those professions –
(doctors, teachers, educators, managers, social workers etc.) – that are
based on helping, but their main purpose is not helping (Di Fabio 2003). In
fact, when one uses counseling skills to support the development of the
resources of a person, one assumes the role of teacher, nurse, social worker,
but not that of counselor. However, “there are many situations where it can
become difficult to draw a line between counseling and the use of
counseling skills” (McLeod 2003, 9).
The proposal that will be put forward below is that the need to be
accepted and recognized as a person is fundamental in all human
relationships. This need is articulated differently in the various relationships
that we experience in our lives (parent-child, friendship, teacher-pupil,
husband and wife etc.), and this also happens in counseling and in
psychotherapy. Both methods are characterized by the element of “care” of
the other, but with the following difference: when the assumptions on the
psychological functioning of the individual can remain in the background,
are not thematized and rather the focus is on achieving educational goals
(maturity, autonomy, self-guidance, clarity of purpose etc.), then you can
35
talk of educational counseling; when the assumptions on mental functioning
are in the foreground and are specifically thematized, then counseling tends
to be more like a psychotherapeutic intervention. The two methods require
different experts (see Fulcheri and Savini 2011, 19).
We should notice that, in its historical development in Europe,
counseling was mainly in the hands of volunteers. They proved to be very
sensitive to intercept the growing social unrest and tried to provide an
answer to it. This was due to the weakening of those institutions,
organizations and ways of social life that guaranteed the educability of the
individual. In Britain, counseling is still mainly in the hands of voluntary
associations and also in Italy counseling appeared in connection with the
establishment of family advisory centres, particularly those of Christian
inspiration. These, alongside state centres, offer help and guidance to
families who have problems.
In this regard, counseling can be considered an answer to the lack of
social integration and of the capacity human beings have to listen and help
one another so as to face and overcome the inevitable developmental crisis
that are part of everyone’s life. Halmos (1965) pointed out that the increase
in the number of counselors is in inverse relation to the number of priests.
Therefore counseling is a new practice that offers an answer to the “old”
desire of the people to have someone to turn to when they are in difficulties.
The following is a clear example: a teacher who was attending a course in
counseling told me that an office colleague- was confiding her a problem
she had. She listened to her and now and then she put in the word: “I
understand”. Then suddenly the colleague exclaimed: “Of course you
understand, you are following a counseling course!”
In our society listening and understanding are often considered
something exceptional and unexpected. In order to understand counseling
we have to “empathize” with the new / old perspective of looking at the
human being that it opens / resumes.
2. A new way to conceive human being and relationship
At the basis of counseling, and in particular as May and Rogers intended it,
there are two aspects of the human condition. However “obvious”, they
were set aside by the traditional schools of psychotherapy, probably due to
their need to be seen as “scientific practices” capable of creating models as
much as possible “objective” of human behaviour:
2.1.the first of these aspects is that man is a “person”, an integrated “whole”
with an “agent” Self, always evolving, able to build subjective meanings
and to take responsibility for them;
36
2.2.the second is that man is basically “relationship”. Besides man “builds”
himself in the relationship by making his own the assessments that the
other people make on his way of being.
2.1. A new way to conceive the human being
Rogers considers a human being an integrated totality, functioning as a
whole. He uses the word “organism” to refer to a human being in his total
functioning. In this regard he quotes Bertalanffy (1960, 13).who states: “We
find that all parts and processes are so arranged as to ensure the
maintenance, construction, ‘repair’ and reproduction of organic systems”.
Rogers (1979) mentions a this proposal Szent-Gyoergyi (1974, 17). He says
that he cannot explain the mysteries of biological development "without
supposing an innate 'drive' in living matter to perfect itself".
The human being, conceived as a whole, naturally tends, in the
interaction with reality, to evolve and to construct meanings ever more wide
and integrated. Life, at whatever level, is an active not a passive process.
(Rogers 1979). The human person is expanding. Rogers – likewise Maslow
(1954), another well-known exponent of humanistic psychology – speaks in
this sense of the existence of an “actualizing tendency”. Even more,
likewise Whitehead (1978), he maintains that there must be “a potent
creative tendency” that operates at all levels (Rogers 1979), of which human
consciousness would be an aspect. This would be a tendency that opposes
entropy. Winnicott (1970) and Rogers maintain that being creative is
consubstantial to the “fully functioning of the person” (Rogers 1961, 182
ss.). There is a natural tendency in human beings to expand the meaning of
his own existence, to act in the direction of a self-actualization that every
single experience offers (Rogers 1964).
A human being, understood as a whole, and this is very important, is
capable of an organized “organismic valuing process”. This evaluation
process involves the whole person, it is “organismic”, it is the expression of
“the wisdom of the body” (Rogers 1964) hence it is first “viscerally” felt
and then mentally “symbolized”. Rogers, in this sense, speaks of an
evolution from “animal harmony” to “human harmony” (Rogers 1963).
Likewise Nietzsche and Lawrence, Rogers maintains that the wisdom of the
body is higher than that of the intellect. This profound “feel” is what marks
the experiences that “I feel to be ‘mine’”.
And so, according to Rogers, there is an authenticity of the person which
comes from natural and integrated functioning of the organism that is able
to make an organized assessment of the experience. Persons are capable of
self-direction.
This assessment process is not rigid, but flexible, as the process of life is
constantly changing. In fact, Rogers maintains that people are constantly
37
immersed in the experience of reality they make. Rogers calls this
immersion of the self into the environment “phenomenal field”.
All individuals (organisms) exist in a continually changing world of
experience (phenomenal field) of which they are the center (Rogers 1951,
481).
This immersion of the self in the environment can be figured as immersion
in a “psychological amniotic fluid” (Rogers 1979) from which the
individual will tend to develop into a functioning totality (“The organism
reacts as an organized whole to this phenomenal field”, Rogers 1951). If the
environment in which the individual is immersed offers the right conditions,
then the individual will naturally develop his own organization, as people,
groups, students will when they are granted “freedom of learning” (Rogers
1969). This also occurs in counseling and in psychological therapy, being
the change allowed by accepting the atmosphere created by the counselor.
As we said, Rogers maintains that the process of life involves a constant
change in the interaction of the organism with reality. Yet, the structural
identity of the organism does not fail, it keeps its own integrity and the
ability to evaluate the experience. Life is a constant flow. The rigidity,
conversely, is a sign of the inability of the subject to interact and to be
modified, in the experience of reality, and it leads to the inability to change,
to stasis. “The good life is a process, not a state of being” (Rogers 1961,
186, author’s emphasis). According to Rogers the most “integrated” stage is
when the Self is free to experiment reality in an ever new way, a condition
which he calls using the word experiencing, by which he means the total
process of subjective life, the spontaneous overflow of feelings. From
construing experience in rigid ways, the person “moves toward developing
changes, losing held constructions of meaning in experience, constructions
which are modifiable by each new experience” (Rogers 1961, 157).
Rogers’s position is very different from Freud’s who maintains that a
newborn, if he could, would keep away from stimulations. He instead, says
that man is in expansion and realizes himself in constantly changing in
relation to reality (Rogers 1979).
We must have realized that Rogers introduces innovative concepts such
as: organismic functioning, expansion, actualizing tendency, true self. The
meaning of Rogers’s proposal can be better understood if it is considered
part of that anti-reductionist way of thinking, which, even-though it can not
be framed in a unified current of thought scholars like Whitehead (1978)
and Bergson (1907), studied in depth followed by schools of thought such as
Gestalt psychology, cybernetics, systemic and the theories of complexity in
the ‘eighties. During the twentieth century, these authors and schools of
thought tried to show that there are, in reality, self-building and selforganizational processes that generate structures ever more articulated not in
38
virtue of some “vitalism”, but owing to the natural dynamic of physical and
living systems. As we mentioned above, Rogers – joining up with Bergson
and Whitehead – suggests that there is a “powerful creative tendency” that
operates at all levels in the universe (Rogers 1979). This is a completely
different perspective from the one upheld by classical psychoanalysis,
behaviorism as well as by a certain cognitive psychology. The Self, as a
“living system” (Sander 2007), is a “whole that is more than the sum of his
parts”, has “agency”, to use a term coming from the theories of complexity,
it has not only “to serve three harsh masters” (Freud, 1974, 110) or a set of
beliefs and behaviours or cognitive schemes.
Rogers’s concepts can be looked at in the light of what the theories of
complexity assert. We will try to do it by referring , in particular but not
only, to the thought of Louis Sander a psychoanalyst who, in mid ‘50s
started to integrate the psychoanalytic look with the perspective of nonlinear
dynamic systems, bringing significant contributions to the understanding of
the functioning of relation, both at infant and adult level. And so we can
highlight:
a. Human beings are “living systems” (Sander 2007) with an agency and
intentionality, arising from their own integrated functioning and their
self-organization. This makes individuals unique. The “whole”
functioning of a person is not a mere epiphenomenon but it is the result
of a central “motivation” (Sander 2007, xiv). It is the result of a
“creative organizational process” that supports the individual as he gets
involved in an ever increasing complexity of the environment (Sander
2007, xiv). The self-organizing processes that make the self an
integrated whole do not produce a “closure” of the living system –
which remains, at the same time, “open” (Bertalannfy 1960). This
allows the constant interaction of the system with the context, which is
essential for its survival. Human beings are constantly changing even
though they maintain a structural identity, the fruit of their “autopoiesis” (Varela and Maturana 1980). Then, it is better to use the
category of “process” rather than that of “structure” (Sander 2007, 168);
b. Since there is a constant interaction of the living system with the
environment that allows its adaptation and survival; self-organization is
always accompanied by an “eco-organization”, that is the ability to
interacts with the environment and change with it. Human beings are
living systems “self-eco-organized” (see Morin 2000, 98). This creates a
“paradox”, because on the one hand we have the uniqueness of the
individual, the result of self-organizing processes; on the other hand his
depending on the environment and adapting to it. The question thus
arises: what does allow the individual to communicate with the
environment or with another living system and remain, at the same time,
different? Sander, who borrows the concept from the biologist Paul
39
Weiss, considers to be important ”the experience of specificity1 in being
know, a specificity of recognition in moments of meeting” (Sander
2007, 190). and the “ritmicity” (Sander 2002, 22), that permits to create
a common base from which may germinate new differences between
systems. Sander calls this knowing each other in a specific way
“recognition process” (Sander 2007, 184). Rogers uses the equally
correct, but more generic word “empathy”: in empathy one feels what
the other feels, while remaining separated. In systemic terms, we can say
that empathy is a “resound” between two systems, that remain distinct.
c. Besides, also the concepts of “psychological atmosphere” and
“accepting climate” Rogers mentioned can be defined by means of
systemic-complex terms. In fact, also the social environment of which
the individual is a part can be considered a system ,“which is more than”
the sum of the individuals who make it up. The “relational field” is an
“emergent property” (Anderson, 1972) compared with the individuals
who belong to it. Lewin used the concept of “field”, to explain that a
group of people is a dynamic totality with its own qualities (Lewin,
1948). In fact there are self-organizing processes that also operate in the
social or relational “field”. Two or more individuals in relation generate
something “more” than the sum of individuals separately considered. As
within that “field” every person has an agency and his own universe of
irreducible meaning, there is a constant dialectic: 1. among processes
that lead the individual to be a part of the social group and 2. processes
that drive him away from “being a part of it” being him endowed with
his own agency. If we limit this perspective to two people: the helper
and the helpee in a counseling relationship, this relationship can be
intended as having the quality of “complex system” or “field” in which
the two participants are “sub-systems” with their own autonomy. Then
we notice that there are moments of “tuning” – enabled by “empathy”
and the “unconditional positive regard” highlighted by Rogers. These
lead individuals to function as parts of a global field; then there are
moments of “disjunction” that lead individuals to favour their own
specificity. In this sense, the counselor has his own emotional reactions.
Rogers tells him to express them clearly and he refers to this ability by
using the word “congruence”.
d. Finally, as Rogers said human beings should be looked at as processes
rather than states, not as unchangeable structures but as “living systems”
(Sander 2007) that constantly change interacting with reality, always “at
the border between order and chaos”. Integrity is not a state but a
continuously renegotiated process between the internal and the external
and dynamically supported by internal self-organizing processes. We
“Specificity”, that is “a sort of resonance between two systems attuned to each other by
corresponding properties” (Weiss 1970, 162).
1
40
should think of them as systems and processes (Sander 2007, 168), not
as static structures.
2.2.Centrality of relationship
Another aspect that counseling has had the merit of bringing to the fore is
the centrality of the relationship. This was deeply discussed in the first
paragraph of this paper. Such a switch to a “relational” dimension has also
characterized the recent evolution of many different types of clinical
psychology.
We have already pointed out how it is possible to understand the
relational process in systemic-relational perspective and we will refer to
these concepts later on in order to explain how counseling operates.
It is not easy to talk of the importance of the relational dimension which,
as we have previously said, can be considered the natural joining of
individuals a relational field, which is essential for psychological survival
and personality development. A human being is “a relationship” and, at the
same time, a separate agency capable of generating his own universe of
meaning. The following comparison can be made: relationship is a network,
individuals represent the knots – knots endowed with agency hence with
their own consistency. And so if it is true that the relation is the background
that makes possible the existence of the knots, it is also true that every
movement of a single knot has an impact on the entire network, allowing it
to come to life, be creative and not flatten. Besides the increase in
“individuality” of a knot, increases the “value” of the network. Within this
network, the people will claim their perspectives, interests and needs by
acting in a disjunctive, centrifugal way, “individualizing” themselves.
However, the network remains as relational background, allowing people to
connect and identify themselves as “part of”. Obviously, this perspective
can also apply to a relationship “between two people” in counseling.
Therefore moving away from ordinary dimension in order to build one’s
own individuality does not mean breaking off deep relationships with
others, but even more, it is the condition for a wider and more “specific”
participation in the network. It is as if the subject conquered a new
perspective of what is ordinary. When this happens, the subject discovers
that “what is more personal, is more general” (Rogers 1970). Tronick (1998)
refers to this more inclusive state by using the concept of “dyadically
expanded states of consciousness”.
Congruent / incongruent → certainty / uncertainty
Since the topic of the conference is the certainty/uncertainty of a piece of
information communicated by a speaker, we will point out that the
uncertainty can be understood in counseling as the index of the inability of
the subject to “symbolize” (Rogers 1951) his deep emotional reactions with
41
respect to a certain situation. For this purpose, it is necessary to examine
Rogers’s idea of the “construction” of the Self.
Rogers (1951) calls “phenomenal field”, the immersion of the Self in the
environment. Compared to that field, the Self begins to differentiate on the
basis of assessments that others provide about him (“I” or “me”). When
there is a convergence between the assessments that give us our way of
being (ideal self) and the emotions and sensations perceived at the
“visceral” level (real self) “congruence” is experienced (Rogers 1951).
Congruency is feeling “freely and deeply” themselves (Rogers 1957b),
aware of one’s own way of being. So, when the assessments of others are in
continuity with the visceral emotions and feelings of the real self, there is
their “symbolization”, which allows the assimilation of the assessments in
the structure of the self (Rogers 1951). Conversely, when the external
evaluations ignore the visceral and deep structure of the self, the experience
can not be integrated and symbolization is not possible. The Self must be
built on the basis of self-images that are incoherent with the intimate feel.
Experiences that can not be integrated represent something foreign, “not
real”, an “introjection”, a threat which stiffens defensively the Self. Then
one falls, in a state of “incongruence” in which the availability of one’s own
way of being and feeling, not being symbolized, can not be perceived. By
integrating the thought of Rogers with the psychoanalytic one, we can say
that the child does not yet have his own psychic organization and that can
initially be conceived as dependent on the relational field. This does not
mean that the child does not have his own agency, but only that he lacks
organization. And so he can not “think” and structure his emotions if they
are not caught by the empathy of the caregiver and returned to him in a
structured way. A child, in order to know himself, draws from the relational
field his emotions “interpreted” and “contained” by the empathy of the
caregiver. But the term empathy is generic and should be better specified.
Psychoanalysis tried to describe empathy as tuning, containment, rêverie.
Sander speaks about the “recognition process”, which allows two subjects to
reach a specific connection and feel they know each other and yet remain
distinct. If a child does not find in the relational field his own emotions
mirrored on the other, or if he does not recognize himself in them, he can
not take ownership of his own emotions that, as a consequence, remain
unfamiliar. This is what Rogers calls incongruence. Rogers points out that
when a person, in an effort to keep the love of people who have a meaning
for him, accepts values from the outside in place of his own experience, he
introduces in the concept of self something foreign and rigid. As we said
before he calls this “introjection”, thus borrowing the concept from
psychoanalysis. This incongruence can be perceived even in new and
unexpected situations, when the person feels having no resources to
“symbolize” what is happening. These situations are typical of counseling,
42
where the focus is on the present, on the “adaptation” between the person
and the situation.
In the state of incongruence a person is somehow disconnected with his
deep feeling, unable to communicate his feelings, first of all, to himself then
to the others, and this makes him fall into a state of uncertainty and impasse.
Words fail to express emotions. This uncertainty of his way of being “turns
the mind idle” (being the thought not connected with the deep perceptions
of the person), hinders the ability to take his “own” decisions.
An example, that the author of this contribution takes from his
experience in a familiar consultory, is that of a twenty-year-old girl who got
married after being engaged for ten years. She applied to a counselor as
during her first wedding night she began to feel a sudden and irrepressible
discomfort regarding the choice she had made. The next morning she started
leaving home for ever longer periods of time and went back to her parents.
She perceived that living together with her husband had become unbearable,
and so she started taking a divorce (or separation) into consideration.
Despite all efforts on herself in order to understand the reason of this
unexpected and dramatic event, she could not clearly understand her own
feelings. This was the reason why she decided to turn to counseling. The girl
could not believe what was happening to her. She could not explain what
she was feeling and doing which was not at all an expression of her strong
and resolute character. Her words revealed the great degree of uncertainty
that she felt about her life. Very often she remained silent with a drawn face
and any attempt to talk about her emotional state resulted in a desperate and
often unsuccessful effort. After a few meetings, she felt that she had
attributed the deep needs of individuation to the relationship with the fiancé
thus assuming the role of counselor of her husband life (rather than of her
own!), and projecting the desire to emancipate herself onto the “house” in
which she should live with him. Suddenly she realized that the
symbolization of her own deep feelings were entirely inadequate and did not
express her real ones.
When there is incongruence, often talking about one’s personal
emotional states is characterized by a high degree of “uncertainty” which is
sometimes expressed with the words “maybe”, “do not know”, etc., But
more often silence, the inability to say something, accompanied by “anxiety
and disorganization” (Rogers 1957b), reveals incongruence. In fact, the
ability to fully communicate a sense of discomfort proves the capacity (as
Bateman and Fonagy said, 2006) to “mentalize” emotional states. In cases
where incongruence is more marked, the person tends not to speak of
internal states, but rather to report “facts”. Facts count, they are felt to be the
source of the problem and not the feelings that make them significant and
unique to the individual. Let us not make the mistake as it is not to the
solution of “facts” that interests the person – even if this is that he wants –
but at the discovery of his own deep “feel”, which is the only one that can
43
tell him faces those facts. It’s just the availability of the “organismic
valuing” that enables the person give an authentic answer. All the
counselor’s attempts referring to the facts – providing “reasonable” and
“sensible” advices – are bound to fail because the person does not want
solutions from the outside, but she wants to regain his ability to provide
solutions “from inside”. If the counselor is tempted to offer solutions he will
realize that the person will not accept his advice as he does not “feel” it. It is
not the solution that is important, but the ability to find it. This does not
mean that counseling should not provide solutions and advice in any way,
but that they must play a secondary and subordinate role. Rogers reported
that the advice, even if timely and appropriate, is for the subject neither
negative nor positive but indifferent.
And so the uncertainty of a person to communicate to the counselor
certain pieces of information is to be intended as a sign of his inability to
feel or get in touch with his organismic and visceral feel. If this happens, the
subject may find “his” place in the situation, painful or convenient may this
be, and the difficulty to adapt himself that he experiences could change for
the natural evolution of the real feelings. If the contact with the deep
emotions is lacking , the Self remains “rigid” and the situation becomes
“stagnant”.
3. A systemic-relational reading of counseling
Rogers maintains that for a counseling relationship to be effective, three
conditions are “necessary”, and also “sufficient,” to produce a change in the
person. These are (Rogers 1957b; 1979):
1. Acceptance, taking care or an open and unconditional positive regard.
The taking care is not possessive and it includes all the feelings that the
counselor is experiencing (anger, fear, love...);
2. Empathic understanding. The counselor is able to understand what the
subject feels and tells him. The counselor has “penetrated the inner
world of the other”. This type of sensory and active listening is
extremely rare in our lives. We think we listen to someone but we very
rarely do it with true empathy and understanding;
3. Genuineness, authenticity, congruence. The client can clearly see what
the counselor “is” in the relationship.
Let’s see how these conditions can be interpreted from the systemicrelational point of view.
As we have already explained, counseling can be intended as a relational
field in which the counselor and the helpee are subsystems. This relational
field is “something more” than the sum of the “inner worlds” of counselor
and helpee. This field develops when a “connection” between helper and
44
helpee “takes place” According to Rogers this connection is favoured by the
“unconditional acceptance” (the person feels he is welcomed – in the sense
of “holding environment” mentioned by Winnicott) and by the “empathy”.
Sander specifies empathy as a “recognition process” (Sander 2007, xv): at
some point, one is aware that he is known by the other. The “congruence” of
the counselor is equally important as, on the one hand, it enables the helpee
“to clearly understand what the therapist ‘is’ in the relationship” and, on the
other hand, it indicates that the counselor is a separate individual with his
own emotional reactions. This induces the helpee to be the same!
In this case the counselor’s primary purpose is not so much that of acting
from the “outside”, providing advice, but of enabling the helpee to trust in
the relational field, sharing doubts and difficulties. If this happens the
“problem” of the subject does no more belong only to him but also to the
“relational field” – as the helpee, by entrusting the problem to the
relationship with the counselor, has also accepted that this no more belongs
to him only but also to the relationship. This is an essential precondition for
the success of counseling: it is very important for the counselor to be able to
properly “empathize” with the helpee. If this happens, then the problem
starts being thought, meditated upon and felt by the relational field.
So, the emotional and cognitive sharing that occurs in counseling
generates a “state of mind to two”, to be understood as a “system” compared
to the “state of mind to one” of the person asking for help which is a
“subsystem”. By entrusting the relational field, the helpee will start, in an
entirely natural way, self-organizing and “congruence” processes with
himself and they will lead him to be “distinct from”. In other words the
helpee, on the one hand, “decentralizes” himself in the relational field, as he
has his emotions accepted and empathized and on the other hand, he “refocus” himself being he provided with agency and congruence. The subject
acts, contemporarily, convergent and disjunctive processes. He will no more
have the problem and look at it exactly as he did when he processed it alone
following the same path because from that moment he gets into possession
of the problem by “taking it away” from the relational field.
Hence, the helpee authentically entrusting his emotions to the relational
field can find again his “feel” and take possession of it again in virtue of the
auto-organizational and disjunctive normal processes that make each person
unicum.
Since the helpee regains his emotions from his shared processing, he,
inevitably, “internalizes” the way in which they have been processed and
interpreted by the mind of the counselor, the words that he used, the vivid
feeling of closeness of the counselor, his humor and so on.
At last it is interesting to notice the importance not only of the verbal
aspects, but of the non-verbal too: not every change must be verbalized to
be valid. Some cognitive psychologists coined the word “procedural”
(Kihlstrom and Cantor 1984; Bucci 1997) to express the way a person
45
interacts (how he jokes, behaves and relates etc). The “how” refers to the
preverbal state, not to the declarative semantic when language can be used
(BCPSG 2010). In other words we must distinguish what is not said because
of “uncertainty” from what can not be expressed in words. That is, not
everything that is not expressed, or is expressed with difficulty, must
necessarily be attributed to uncertainty because, indeed, there are some
experiences that are only partially verbalizable.
4. The educational dimension of counseling
Since the purpose of counseling in the formulation of Rogers we mentioned
is “to assist the individual to grow, so that he can cope with the present
problem and with later problems in a better-integrated fashion” (Rogers
1942, 28), it is clear its educational value, in order to promote the growth of
the subject and his capability to assume responsible choices. Counseling,
generally speaking, caters for individuals who are going through a
“developmental crisis” or who feel “out of step” when they are facing new
or unexpected situations. In fact, according to the systemic-complex point of
view that we have adopted, human beings are living systems who even
though they co-evolve in constant interaction with reality, have their own
history, are made up of a complex layering of choices and “bifurcations”
that made them – even in processuality that characterizes them – “rigid”,
“structured”, only partially inclined to modify the roots of their systemic
organization. As changing implies a deep revision of our internal models,
Bion (1976) maintains that all genuine evolutions are “catastrophic”.
Pirandello, if we are allowed this literary digression, thought likewise: the
“flow” of life inside each of us necessarily sticks to the fixed roles and
masks, which he attempted to “undress” throughout his work.
Owing to this inevitable “rigidity” of the system that each of us is, there
may be situations the subject has difficulties to adapt himself to – in the
sense of “structural coupling” of Maturana – and give them a meaning, or
by which he feels overwhelmed. A counselor offers himself to assist the
subject in order to find new ways of “being” in the situation, and give it a
meaning. He intercepts the difficulty of the subject to adapt himself to the
new dimensions of sense and he enables him to overcome his self-referential
dynamics; he accepts him and understand him empathically, providing him
with a “holding environment”, making available, in the relational field, his
emotions and his points of view so that the situation to which he was unable
to adapt may slowly return to be “habitable”. In “making habitable” the
situation, the counselor enables the subject to draw on his resources, on his
“creative primary self” (Winnicott), on his “actualizing tendency” (Rogers).
The aim of the counselor is that of offering the subject tools in order to
enable him to “re-tune” with the situation and not that of inquiring into his
46
personality. A counselor accepts and empathizes with the difficulties and
feelings of the subject, he acts as something “inside” to his point of view,
since he understand him and, at the same time as something “outside”, as
“another” from the subject. In this alternation of nearness and otherness,
empathy and congruence, he has a real educational role, being he “close to”
but “different from”, he is one with the emotions of the subject and yet
different from them. And so if someone from the outside can tune with the
difficulty of the subject, then the world is not “closed”! There is an opening,
and there is a chance for us to adapt ourselves! Then the transformative
“mechanism” acting in counseling is one with the “normal” transformative
power of the relationship, enabling the subject to activate the selfrecognition processes as he was recognized by another. A genuine
communication activates the processes of expansion of the self; the world
ceases to be something “foreign” and becomes, in the reflection of the face
of the other, something close.
It is interesting to notice that this method of tuning/congruence,
proximity/diversity that the counselor puts into practice does not have to go
through an explicit thematization of the psychological dynamics of the
subject. Of course, in some cases, when there are conflicts or “intrasystemic” weaknesses – and who does not have them? – explicitly focusing
on the psychological dynamics may be appropriate. In these cases
counseling tends to be more properly psychotherapeutic and a thorough
understanding of the psychological dynamics and of the related explanatory
theories are needed. However, when the objective is re-finding the
interaction of the self with reality, his “structurally coupling” with the
world, to enable his evolution, then the psychological dynamics may remain
in the background, the focus is on educational achievement; then counseling
takes on the particular characteristics of an educational relationship. Gordon
who, starting from Rogers principles, created a model for “effective”
interpersonal communication, said that a thorough understanding of people
and their personalities is not essential in order to know how to communicate
well with each of them. The idea of having to “diagnose” people to
effectively communicate with them still presumes a logic of control. People
are so complex that it is difficult to have exhaustive opinions on them.
Communication based on Rogers’s three principles mentioned above is
already “transformative” 2 . And, on the other hand does not, perhaps, the
2
It is interesting to notice that many different types of clinical psychology are experiencing
a “relational turn”, deriving models for the treatment of adults from the “normal” relational
exchange that occurs between caregiver and child. Beebe and Lachmann (2002, 46),
inspired by Sander, focus on the process of interactive regulation that occurs between
therapist and patient rather than, as in classical psychoanalysis, on the dynamic content of
the patient:
We are not proposing a new technique, nor are arguing for decreased attention to
dynamic issues in treatment. Instead, we revere the figure-ground customarily used in
47
relation transformative power characterize any genuine relationship – that
of the mother with her child, of two friends, of the educator with the student,
as well as that of a therapist with his/her patient and the counselor with the
person that turns to him? All types of relationship we have here taken into
consideration represent a precise psychological dimension within which we
play certain roles, with different psychic functions.
The “relationship” must be conceived as “background” in respect of
which every “single” relationship is a specific case, in which the subjects
have determinate roles. A friend, even if he becomes a psychologist, will
remain primarily a friend. A “friendly” psychologist will remain a
psychologist and if he seriously thinks of becoming his patient’s friend… it
becomes a problem! Our life is full of roles corresponding to different
mental functions: we are fathers, sons, colleagues, friends, patients, lovers,
friends... Some roles can change (from colleague to friend), others can not
(from father to lover, from father to friend). When the role changes the
meaning of interpersonal commitment is deeply reorganized. Some issues
can be dealt with educationally because the relation is educational, some in
a friendly way as the relationship is friendship, etc. An educator establishes
a kind of cooperation aiming at enabling the person to grow up and pursue
his goals in life. In this way he establishes a deep relationship with the
person so that the person may feel recognized and accepted but the final aim
is that the individual may gradually acquire more capacity in the interaction
with reality according to his characteristics and talents. An educator. An
educator is interested in the person’s capacity to grow up in the real world.
He studies a person in an empathic relationship so as to enable him to start
constructive processes interacting with the outside world.
Counseling aims “to assist the individual to grow up so that he may cope
with present and later problems in a better-integrated way (Rogers 1942).
This is also the aim of an educator, but with regard to educational
counseling an educator must clearly establish what type of work he intend to
do with the person in order to avoid misunderstanding and ambiguity.
Counseling can be defined educational when it concerns the development of
a person in different fields (school, work cultural, medical, nursing etc.).
Also family life, adolescence, group life etc. can be the prerogative of
educational counseling because they refer to the growing up of the subject
during his life cycle and specific educational help may be needed provided
that this is offered by people properly trained: a degree in education (see
Fulcheri and Savini 2011).
describing analytic treatment. We place the mutually regulated non-verbal exchanges
in the foreground and the dynamic conceptualizations into the background (Lachmann
46-7).
48
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51
Degrees of (un)certainty in Bari Italian yes-no question
intonation: perceptual evidence
Michelina Savino
University of Bari “Aldo Moro” (Italy)
michelina.savino@uniba.it
Abstract
This paper provides perceptual evidence that in Bari Italian yes-no questions
a rising L+H* pitch accent conveys speaker’s uncertainty as to the polarity
of the answer, as opposed to falling (H*+L and H+L*) pitch accents which
express speaker confidence that polarity is positive. It also demonstrates that
the high-falling H*+L and the low-falling H+L* pitch accents cue different
degrees of speaker certainty. Experimental results derive from a perceptual
evaluation task, where Bari Italian listeners were asked to rate the perceived
degree of (un)confidence in yes-no questions as to the correctness of the
inference made in the question. These results provide further support to
current research findings about the crucial role of intonation as an epistemic
marker of (un)certainty across languages.
Keywords: Intonation, polar questions, epistemic modality, Italian language
1. Introduction
It has been largely demonstrated that languages can rely on a number of
devices for conveying speaker epistemic disposition of (un)certainty
towards a proposition, including lexical and morphosyntactic markers but
also prosody – specifically intonation. Recent studies on this topic has been
focussed on the specific role of intonation alone, or in combination with the
use of non-prosodic markers like lexical, morphosyntactic or gestural
(typically, facial expressions) ones. For example, Gravano et al. (2008)
show that both the epistemic lexical marker ‘would’ and the downstepped
F0 contour are equally crucial for conveying/perceiving certainty in
American English spoken utterances. On the other hand, Borras-Comes et
al. (2011) demonstrate for Catalan that even if the contribution of lexical
markers is important for conveying (un)certainty, it can be easily overidden
by prosodic and gestural markers.
In intonation studies dealing with the expression of epistemic disposition
of (un)certainty across languages, it appears as a general trend that a
rising/high pitch is related to the expression of uncertainty, whereas a
52
low/falling pitch is associated with perceived degrees of certainty. Such a
picture is compatible with the concept of “intonation universals” expressing
basic attitudinal meanings across languages and cultures. According to this
hypothesis, high frequency/rising contours signal openness, deference,
submission, lack of confidence, whereas low frequency/falling contours are
associated with assertiveness, authority, aggression, confidence (Bolinger
1964, 1978). The use of a frequency code (Ohala 1984) is traced back to that
observed in animals behaviour, where it is used for giving information about
size: high frequencies have the primary meaning of “small vocalizer”
(therefore submissive, non aggressive, etc.), whereas low frequencies have
the primary meaning of “large vocalizer” (i.e. dominant, aggressive, etc.).
So in British English, for example, a falling contour conveys “dominance
of the situation, or certainty with regard to our knowledge of the polarity of
the message” (Verdugo Ramirez 2005, 2088), whereas a rising contour
denotes “uncertainty, deference, vulnerability, or the fact that the polarity is
unknown” (Verdugo Ramirez 2005, 2088). In American English, Ward and
Hirschberg (1985) show that uncertainty is basically conveyed by a fall-rise
F0 pattern, whereas a rising-falling contour is used for expressing the
opposite.
On the other hand, in languages like Catalan the distinction between
information-seeking yes-no questions (characterised by a neutral polarity
reflecting speakers uncertainty about the answer) and confirmation-seeking
yes-no questions (biased towards a positive reply, thus reflecting speaker
certainty about knowledge of polarity) is intonationally marked by a
different scaling of the leading H tone in the H+L* pitch accent (Vanrell et
al. 2012), not by a different F0 movement (rising vs falling).
Unlike Catalan, in Bari Italian such a distinction (reflecting, as explained
above, speaker (un)certainty as to polarity of the answer) is intonationally
marked by the use of different pitch accents types: a rising L+H* for
information-seeking polar questions, as opposed to either the rising L+H* or
the falling H*+L or H+L* pitch accents for confirmatory yes-no questions.
The use of any of the three pitch accents in confirmation-seeking questions
depends on the degree of speaker confidence as to the correctness of the
inferred material asked in the question (Savino 1997; 2000, Grice and
Savino 2003a; 2003b; 2004).
These results about the role of intonation as epistemic marker of
(un)certainty in Bari Italian polar questions are based on production studies
only. Aim of the present paper is to provide perceptual evidence for
corroborating these previous findings.
53
2. Intonation in Bari Italian yes-no questions
As introduced above, motivation of this study has its background in a
number of past investigations on the intonational characteristics of Bari
Italian yes-no questions based on analysis of Map Task dialogues (Savino
1997; 2000, Grice and Savino 2003a; 2003b; 2004, Savino and Grice 2007;
2011). In the Map Task (Anderson et al. 1991), pairs of participants – an
Instruction Giver (IG) and an Instruction Follower (IF) – are each given a
map, but only the IG’s map has a route drawn on it. The task consists in
transferring the route – as accurately as possible – from the IG’s to the IF’s
map by exchanging verbal information. The two maps are not identical,
since some of the landmarks are positioned differently, and some of them
are only present on one of the two maps. These features are introduced in
order to generate possible misunderstandings as in actual, everyday
interactions. In the modified version of the Map Task method used for
eliciting Bari Italian dialogues, participants were not told in advance that the
two maps were different (even though this is what they assumed when they
started the session), thus allowing the experimenters to make assumptions
on what constituted shared information until a discrepancy was found by the
participants. Moreover, eye contact was always inhibited during interaction
in order to maximise the use of the verbal channel.
A specific dialogue structure coding scheme (Carletta et al. 1997) has
been developed for the Map Task distinguishing three hierarchical levels of
dialogue analysis, namely (from the highest to the lowest):
-
Transactions, “which are subdialogues that accomplish one major step in
the participants’ plan for achieving the task” (Carletta et al. 1997, 14);
-
Conversational games, which “embody the observation that, by and
large, questions are followed by answers, statements by acceptance or
denial, and so on” (Carletta et al. 1997, 14). Conversational games are
also differentiated between initiations “which set up a discourse
expectation about what will follow” and responses “which fulfill those
expectations” (Carletta et al. 1997, 14);
-
Conversational moves, which are “simply different kinds of initiations
and responses according to their purpose” (Carletta et al. 1997, 14).
Conversational moves are therefore the building blocks of the whole
dialogue structure: initiating moves are typically questions, instructions
or explanations (Query_yn, Check, Instruct and Explain moves in the
Map Task coding scheme), whereas response moves are replies to
questions, clarifications, or acknowledgements (Reply, Clarify and
Acknowledge moves in the same coding scheme).
54
The above mentioned studies focussed on the intonational distinction, in
Bari Italian, between two types of questioning moves: Query_yn, i.e. yes-no
questions asking for new information (that is, information which is
unknown by the speaker at the time of asking the question), and Check, i.e.
yes-no questions asking for confirmation about (assumed) given information
(Carletta et al. 1997).
Recall that Queries are normally unbiased questions (i.e. they are not
biased towards a particular answer type), whereas Checks are biased
towards a positive answer.
Intonationally, such a distinction is marked by the use of different
nuclear pitch accents (the boundary tones being the same in both question
types, namely a falling L-L%): a rising L+H* in Queries, and a falling
H+L* or H*+L pitch accent in Checks. An example of a prototypical Query
is offered in Figure 1, and one of a prototypical Check with a low falling
H+L* nuclear pitch accent is shown in Figure 2. For both examples, the
relating Map Task dialogue context is also provided.
Figure 1: Speech waveform and F0 contour (right panel) of a spontaneous Query
(“hai un leOne?) produced during a Map Task sessions, along with the relating
excerpt from the dialogue transcript (left panel). Reproduced and adapted from Grice
and Savino (2003a). Shaded box in the right panel highlights the nuclear accented
syllable.
55
Figure 2: Speech waveform and F0 contour (right panel) of a spontaneous Very
Confident Check (“e curvo a DEstra”) produced during a Map Task sessions, along
with the relating excerpt from the dialogue transcript (left panel). Reproduced and
adapted from Grice and Savino (2003a). Shaded box in the right panel highlights the
nuclear accented syllable.
However, it was also observed that Checks can be characterised by any of
the three accents types, depending on (a) whether or not accessible
information (about which confirmation is requested) is active in the
speaker’s consciousness (Chafe 1974), and (b) how confident is the speaker
as to the correctness of the inference made in the question. On this basis, the
following sub-classification for Check move in Bari Italian has been
proposed:
-
Tentative Check, intonationally marked by a rising L+H* nuclear pitch
accent, i.e. confirmation-seeking yes-no questions when speaker
confidence as to the correctness of inferred material is very low (an
example is shown in Figure 3, along with the Map Task dialogue context
it was extracted from). Note that this is the same intonation contour
described for Queries.
-
Confident Check, intonationally marked by a high-falling H*+L nuclear
pitch accent, when speakers are confident that information is mutually
given or accessible (Chafe 1974). An example is shown in Figure 4,
along with the Map Task dialogue context it was extracted from.
-
Very Confident Check, intonationally marked by a low-falling H+L*
pitch accent, when the degree of speaker confidence as to givenness of
56
information is very high, i.e. higher than in Confident Checks (example
in Figure 2). Note that when context is not provided, Very Confident
Checks are indistinguishable from declarative utterances.
Figure 3: Speech waveform and F0 contour (right panel) of a spontaneous Tentative
Check (“giardino delle VIsite?”) produced during a Map Task sessions, along with the
relating excerpt from the dialogue transcript (left panel). Reproduced and adapted
from Grice and Savino (2003a). Shaded box in the right panel highlights the nuclear
accented syllable.
Figure 4: Speech waveform and F0 contour (right panel) of a spontaneous Confident
Check (“in tratto orizzonTAle”) produced during a Map Task sessions, along with the
relating excerpt from the dialogue transcript (left panel). Reproduced and adapted
from Grice and Savino (2003a). Shaded box in the right panel highlights the nuclear
accented syllable.
57
Such a description is schematised in Table 1. Intonational categories are
described within the Autosegmental-Metrical framework (Ladd, 1996).
Table 1: Intonational marking of Query vs Check yes-no questions in Bari Italian,
according to different degrees of speaker confidence that information is shared, as
resulting from previous investigations on this variety.
3. Research question
The pragmatic interpretation of pitch accents as associated to different
degrees of speaker’s confidence in Bari Italian polar questions as pictured
above, is derived from production studies and it is based on dialogue context
analysis and native speaker’s intuitions.
Scope of the present paper is to provide perceptual evidence supporting
this interpretation. A perceptual evaluation experiment has been carried out,
where listeners were asked to rate the degree of certainty/uncertainty
(confidence/unconfidence) in Bari Italian yes-no questions realised with the
three types of nuclear pitch accents as described above. In particular, we
aim to verify:
 whether yes-no questions carrying a L+H* pitch accent would be
perceived as unconfident, as opposed to those with both H*+L and
H+L* pitch accents being evaluated as confident;
58
 whether yes-no questions carrying a low-falling H+L* nuclear pitch
accent would be judged as sounding more confident than those with a
high-falling H*+L nuclear pitch accent.
4. Method and materials
In the perceptual evaluation task, listeners were asked to rate the perceived
degree of speaker (un)confidence in yes-no questions as to the correctness
of the inference made in the question. Subjects were requested to make their
judgements along a 7-point scale (Equal Appearing Interval Scale paradigm,
Rietvald and Chen 2006), where 1=’very confident’ and 7=’very
unconfident’ (see the complete scale in Figure 8). Note that here
confident/unconfident are used instead of the typical certain/uncertain, for
consistency with terminology adopted in previous studies in classifying subtypes of Checks.
According to our hypothesis, we expect that perceptual ratings of stimuli
intonationally marked with the low-falling H+L* nuclear pitch accent (very
confident Checks) would be concentrated on the leftmost end of the scale
(1=’very confident’), whereas those of stimuli with a rising L+H* nuclear
pitch accent (tentative Checks) would converge on the rightmost end
(6=’unconfident’/7=’very unconfident’). As to the stimuli characterised by a
high-falling H*+L nuclear pitch accent (Confident Checks), expected
judgments would converge on positions 2/3 of the scale (i.e.
‘confident’/’somewhat confident’).
Stimuli
As a first step, 10 yes-no questions (both Queries and Checks) were
extracted from a number of Bari Italian Map Task dialogues. These
questions were used for recording a trained Bari Italian female speaker (the
author) who reproduced each of them with L+H*, H*+L, and H+L* nuclear
pitch accents, respectively, for a total amount of 30 target utterances. For
example, the question “giro intorno al lago Anomalo?” (shall I go around
lake Anomalo?) was intonationally realised as a Query/tentative Check
(1.a), as a confident Check (1.b), and as a very confident Check (1.c), as
schematised in the following (capital letters indicate the nuclear syllable):
1.a
giro intorno al lago aNOmalo
(tentative Check, see Figure 5)
L+H* L-L%
1.b
giro intorno al lago aNOmalo
(confident Check, see Figure 6)
H*+L L-L%
59
1.c
giro intorno al lago aNOmalo
(very conf. Check, see Figure 7)
H+L* L-L%
Figure 5: Speech waveform and F0 contour of the stimulus “Giro intorno al lago
Anomalo” realised as a Query/tentative Check (L+H* nuclear pitch accent). Shaded
box highlights the nuclear accented syllable.
60
Figure 6: Speech waveform and F0 contour of the stimulus “Giro intorno al lago
Anomalo” realised as a confident Check (H*+L nuclear pitch accent). Shaded box
highlights the nuclear accented syllable.
Figure 7: Speech waveform and F0 contour of the stimulus “Giro intorno al lago
Anomalo” realised as a very confident Check (H+L* nuclear pitch accent). Shaded
box highlights the nuclear accented syllable.
61
Additional 30 questions were produced and used as fillers in the perceptual
evaluation test. These fillers consist of alternative questions (like “vado
avanti sempre dritto o no?” shall I go always straight or not?), tag questions
(like “vado sempre dritto, vero?” I go always straight, right?, or “il negozio
ce l’hai sotto, no?” you have the shop below, haven’t you?), or echo
questions (“hai detto che hai? due arrivi?” you said you have? two
arrivals?). Fillers were created by extracting and adapting original
utterances from Map Tasks dialogues, which were reproduced by the same
Bari Italian speaker in the same recording session.
The total amount of stimuli used for the experiment is 60. In creating the
stimuli, care was taken that they were homogeneous with respect to F0 level
and speech signal amplitude. Preparation of the stimuli was carried out
using Praat software tool for speech analysis (Boersma and Weenink 2001).
Procedure
Subjects sat in front of a computer and wore headphones. They were
instructed to listen to each stimulus and to judge how confident the speaker
sounded by clicking their response on one of the boxes corresponding to one
of the 7 points of a scale. The scale as it appeared to listeners on the
computer screen is reproduced in Figure 8.
Before starting the evaluation, listeners were given written instructions
explaining the situational and communicative context – the Map Task
dialogues –in which the questions had been originally uttered, and
subsequently extracted and reproduced by the same female speaker. A small
reproduction of a pair of maps used in a Map Task session was also
provided. Subjects were asked to evaluate, for each question they were
going to listen to, how confident the speaker sounded that she would receive
a positive answer to her question. For example, if the speaker asked whether
she had to perform a certain action, how confident she sounded that she
indeed had to perform that action, and that therefore she would be answered
‘yes’ to her question. This example was included in the written instructions.
Stimuli were presented in random order, and perceptual evaluation
procedure was completely self-paced. Listeners were allowed to play each
stimulus as many times as they wanted before answering, and to have a
break at any time during the session. In any case, a break was inserted after
every block of 20 stimuli, and subjects were free to decide when to resume
from breaking, and proceed with the next stimulus by clicking on the screen.
Listeners received a feedback that their evaluation response had been
accepted by the system through the changing colour of the selected box
(from yellow to red), and only after that feedback they were allowed to
proceed listening to the next stimulus. Skipping responses was not
permitted. The evaluation task was preceded by a training session, whose
responses were not included in the analysis.
62
All sessions were carried out in a quite laboratory, and the experimenter
was always present but did not interfere during the task.
The perceptual experiment was implemented and run by using the
scripting facilities included in the Praat software tool.
Figure 8: Reproduction of the 7-point scale boxes as it appeared to the listeners in the
perceptual evaluation session (English translation of the original Italian text)
Informants
Twenty Italian listeners (14 females and 6 males, 21-48 aged, mean=27.4)
participated in the experiment on a voluntary basis. They were all born and
living in Bari, with no self-reported hearing deficits. They were all
undergraduate, graduate and PhD students of Psychology, Educational
Science, and Engineering at the two local universities. None of them had a
background in linguistics, phonetics or prosody.
5. Results and Discussion
Results are presented in Figure 9, showing the mean values (along with
standard error bars) of all listeners responses for the three nuclear pitch
accent types.
Figures show that the perceptual rates assigned to the falling H*+L and
H+L* pitch accents are located between 2-3, i.e. on the “confident” side of
the scale, whereas that attributed to the rising L+H* pitch accent is located
on the “unconfident” side. These results confirm the interpretation proposed
in previous studies on Bari Italian yes-no questions as to the pragmatic
meaning conveyed by the three pitch accents, in terms of speaker
confidence/unconfidence that information is given. Results also provide
perceptual support to the previous observations about different degrees of
speaker confidence in questions which are encoded by distinct pitch accent
types.
This outcome is confirmed by a paired t-test (one-tail) showing that mean
values of evaluation rates are significantly different in the three pitch
accents (corresponding to as many pragmatic categories): for H+L* vs
H*+L t(19)=7.92, p<0.001; for H*+L vs L+H* t(19)=8.71, p<0.001.
63
All Listeners Responses (mean values)
7
6
scale
5
4
3
2
1
H+L* (vcC)
H*+L (cC)
L+H* (tC)
Figure 9: Mean values of all listeners evaluation rate for the three pitch accent types
as realised in vcC= very confident Check, cC=confident Check, tC=tentative Check,
respectively (scale: 1=’very confident’, 7= ‘very unconfident’).
As a side observation, it can be noted that listeners did not use the extremes
of the scale for their perceptual evaluation. This is more evident for
judgments rates of the L+H* tentative Checks than for the H+L* very
confident Check. This asymmetry can be probably explained by the
corresponding asymmetry in the pragmatic categorisation of pitch accent
types, i.e. only one pitch accent encoding speaker unconfidence vs two pitch
accents for conveying different degrees of speaker confidence (i.e. confident
and very confident Checks).
6. Concluding remarks
In this paper, perceptual evidence has been provided that in Bari Italian yesno questions:
- a rising L+H* pitch accent conveys speaker uncertainty, as opposed to
falling pitch accents (H*+L and H+L*) which express speaker
confidence that information is shared;
- two different types of falling pitch accents, the high-falling H*+L and the
low-falling H+L*, convey distinctive degrees of speaker confidence as to
the giveness of information.
64
These results also give further support to current research findings about the
crucial role of intonation as an epistemic marker of (un)certainty across
languages (see discussion in Vanrell et al. 2012). They are also in line with
predictions made by the frequency code and the intonation universals
theories, thus providing further evidence in typological perspective.
Acknowledgements
A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the International
Conference “The Communication of Certainty and Uncertainty. Linguistic,
Psychological, Philosophical Aspects” held in Macerata, 3-5 October 2012.
I would like to thank all colleagues of the audience for their insightful
comments and suggestions.
I would like to gratefully thank Grazia Matera for help in collecting the
data, and Andrea Bosco for advice on statistics. Many thanks also to Phuong
Ha for her comments during the preparation of the manuscript.
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67
Chapter 2
Literature
68
Uncertainty markers in novels
Marina Mizzau
University of Bologna (Italy)
marina.mizzau@unibo.it
Abstract
I refer to those speech acts that connect in a dubitative manner the action of
narrating with the subject of the narration. A number of epistemic
uncertainty markers such as “maybe”, “probably”, “likely”, “I think that”,
can be used in everyday conversation and in scientific speech and also in
novels, and this is the context that I will hereby discuss. The use of a
dubitative marker connecting the action of narrating with the product, the
novel, indicates the narrator’s presence and it is a peculiar means of
collusion that the narrator establishes with the reader, creating something
like a paradoxical effect, I will examine a number of narrative types, from
the limited standpoint of the first person to that of neutral omniscience, to
cast a light on the different effects produced by the use of uncertainty
markers.
Keywords: Uncertainty markers, novels, novelist-reader relation, doubt
1.
Introduction and definition of the problem
The cognitive attitude towards the reliability of a message relates to, among
other things, the degree of certainty or uncertainty on the part of who is
talking or writing, and which who is listening is obliged to receive. Often
this uncertainty is expressed through linguistic (as well as perceptive)
indicators (Bongelli and Zuczkowski 2008).
The degree of uncertainty relating to the source of information can be
indicated through modalisation markers such as adverbs: maybe, probably,
or verbs, think, seem, believe, presume; the conditional: would be, could be,
or terms of approximation, towards evening, around four, or the question
mark following an assertion, or even the over-used inverted commas with
which one distances oneself from what one is saying. I will refer to these
linguistic strategies which connect, in an openly doubtful way, the act of
communication with what is being communicated.
In terms of linguistic pragmatics, uncertainty markers are comments
relative to how we express a message, as if we’re saying: ‘I make this
69
statement characterising it with uncertainty’. The speaker partially
disassociates himself from what they are saying: ‘I say this but I don’t
believe it deep down’, ‘I am not certain of what I am saying’. Alternatively,
these uncertainty markers can indicate heterogeneity of expression, the
presence of an alternative voice in the message, from which the speaker can
also distance himself (‘it could rain tomorrow’, to use an example from
weather forecasting).
These markers exist in everyday conversation, giving a voice to the
possible, which is discussed no less than the real, so much so that, in verbal
exchanges, the conditional is used as much as the indicative. Beyond
speech, these markers also occur in print, from news stories (‘the robbery
must have happened at dawn’) to the titles of those same articles.
Uncertainty markers are also present in scientific discourse, which one
would deem more compliant with certainty, with proven events, but which
also articulates itself through hypotheses, through ‘ifs’.
These signals of doubt exist as well as in everyday conversation and
science, also in novels. But how do you express the relation between
certainty and uncertainty in narrative texts, in which the reported events by
definition belong to the realm of fiction and therefore to some extent to the
arbitrary, to the hypothetical? The signals of doubt peer through the pages of
a novel creating an effect of instability, one could say, in the relation
between author and reader, but favouring also an understanding, a
complicity between the two.
I will centre my analysis on uncertainty markers in novels, but before I
do so I would like to make a more general consideration on how fiction
conforms itself to an undefined rule between the certain and the uncertain,
between the real and the possible.
Stories are open to multiple readings and interpretations. Bruner (1986)
talks about ‘subjunctivation’, a linguistic mechanism through which a story
is set ‘in the subjunctive’, a use of the verb which weakens the narrator’s
resoluteness. Even if the possibilities of interpretation are not endless, the
relative uncertainty of the text nevertheless allows the reader a search for
meaning within a few options, even independently from the author’s
intentions, an array of undefined interpretations, some more relevant than
others.
In fiction we are always confronted not with certainties, but with
possibilities. Stories is novels are not real (even if they can be based on
reality), they are ‘possible realities’, which present us not with truth, but
with verisimilitude. They are “as if true stories” (Mizzau 1998), the
validation of which – the proof of psychological truthfulness – can only be
the one construed from the reader’s understanding of the plot, the
characters, their intertwining, and their thoughts, as plausible, or in other
words, subjectively and communally, as real.
70
Storytelling therefore takes place in an uncertain, undetermined tone.
Nevertheless the presence of uncertainty markers – maybe, probably,
plausibly, I think that, I don’t know whether, it would appear, around seven
o’clock, I wonder why, in inverted commas – within a literary text instigates
at the very least curiosity, if not perplexity. They can determine a
paradoxical effect that can be expressed thus: if the story is the novelist’s
invention there is no reason why he should doubt what he himself has
produced. This could be the reaction of the reader, who, presented with the
doubts on that very reality that the narrator seems to be questioning, might
be invited to “offer up his own suppositions, just like the author offers up
his, collaborating on the development of the story” (Eco 1979)
To whom are the signs of uncertainty attributable? The introduction of
maybe – an adverb that I will sometimes use an prototype of the uncertainty
marker – can be ambiguous, depending on whether it is referred to a
character or if it is an ‘author’s marker’. An out-of-context example:
(1)
Jim didn’t answer her. Maybe he hadn’t heard.
The maybe following Jim didn’t answer her and that precedes hadn’t heard
can be an inference of the female character, who is indicated by the pronoun
her (She thought that maybe Jim hadn’t heard), but also potentially the
external voice of the author. It is the author who suggests an explanation for
Jim’s lack of response. It is this ‘authorial doubt’ that I will discuss in my
chosen examples.
As a linguistic tool connecting the act of narrating with the end product, the
novel, maybe represents the author’s presence and a singular instrument of
interaction that the author – or the narrator, to leave the semiotic debate on
how to define him – establishes with the reader.
We could engage the idea, as Greimas (1986) does, of débrayage énonciatif,
in other words a shift from the figure of the narrator asserting something,
but who then distances himself from the assertion.
Much as we possess the ability allowing us to distinguish a story or a film
from a description of reality, the maybe can suggest the truth insinuating
itself into the false, a breaking of the frame, to use Goffman’s (1975)
categories, separating the truth from the make-believe.
2. Analysis of a few samples
I will now illustrate some examples of uncertainty markers taken from
novels, from the complex to the less so, from those in which the maybe is
more inherent to the context of the story, in other words is relatable to the
thoughts of the character/s, to those in which the introduction of doubt by
the author is appears more anomalous compared to the outline of the
71
characters or that of the narrated events, in other words those in which the
author himself seems to question the events and backstories.
In the following example, the narrating ‘I’, expressing himself in the first
person, observes the reactions of a character, the lift attendant, asking
himself what reasons might lead him to not respond to his words, listing
many as if to cover the entire array of possibilities.
(2) Mais il ne me répondit pas, soit étonnement de mes paroles, attention a
son travail, souci de l’etiquette, durete de son ouie, respect du lieu,
craint du danger, paresser d’intelligence ou consigne di directeur.
But he did not answer me, perhaps because of surprise over my words,
attention to his work, obedience to etiquette, hardness of hearing,
respect for the setting, fear of danger, laziness of mind or a reprimand
from the manager.
(Marcel Proust, A l’ombre des jeunes filles en fleur, 1919).
The first-person narration, in which the narrator identifies himself with the
character, makes the expression of doubt plausible: the person narrating
‘pretends’ to question the reality he has ‘encountered’ (or he questions a
reality which he ‘pretends’ to have ‘encountered’) whose meaning is not
clear to him. I will explain the terms in inverted commas, referring to
sources.
For Searle (1975), the writer pretends to make assertions, shows to be
making a series of normal statements, he pretends to be someone who
makes assertions.
This pretence is inherent to the very act of literary creation. Nevertheless
the interaction between author and reader gives the effect of reality, coexisting with suspension of disbelief; I will come back later to this
argument.
‘Encountered’ refers to the psychological distinction Metzger (1954)
makes of the different meaning of reality. One of these possible meanings
relates to the juxtaposition encountered vs represented: art by definition
falls in the realm of the represented, it ‘not encountered’. Even so – and this
is where the problem that concerns us lies – art, literature, and particularly
the classic novel contain references to the encountered; we could say that
the narrator suggestively produces the effect of the encountered in the
moment in which, introducing the maybe, he seems to express a resistance
to the reality he is confronted with, and to its existence beyond being
represented, narrated, to which he cannot give a thorough explanation.
Doubts in general appear to be more problematic than ‘maybes’ in novels
in which the narrator could be called ‘omniscient’, or in which the writer
does not take a character’s point of view; the reader has therefore access to
all the information, thoughts, feelings, perceptions of the characters, as well
as to those of the writer himself. In some cases though the narrator
72
introduces doubt in the reader, he challenges his certainty of reading a
made-up story, by insinuating the suspicion, obviously as a pretence, that
the story is a real one he is reporting first-hand or from a source. He
achieves this by using explicit uncertainty markers around the events he
recounts or the thoughts of the characters. These expedients were frequently
used in the 19th-century novel:
(3) It just so happened at that moment that the owner of the caravan
brought her lips to the cup (which, so that everything around her was
solid and comfortable, turned out to be a coffee cup). And, as she kept
her eyes turned up to the sky to savour fully the taste of the tea, perhaps
mixed with a light splash or dash from the suspicious bottle. But this is
only a deduction, not a precise historical fact… (Charles Dickens, The
Old Curiosity Shop, 1842).
Occasionally the admitting of uncertainty is based on a literary expedient
popular in the 19th century, the pretence of a hidden author, generally
anonymous, whose doubts the actual narrator takes up himself.
See for instance:
(4) Il nostro autore non descrive quel viaggio notturno, tace il nome del
paese dove fra Cristoforo aveva indirizzato le due donne; anzi, protesta
espressamente di non lo voler dire. Dal progresso della storia si rivela
poi la ragione di questa reticenza
Our author doesn’t describe that journey through the night, he does not
speak the name of the town to which Friar Cristoforo sent the two
women; in fact, he explicitly says he does not want to say. The reason
for this reticence is revealed later as the story unfolds.
(Alessandro Manzoni, I promessi sposi [The Betrothed], 1840-42).
(5) (Renzo and Lucia renew their mutual vows, and Lucia accepts to allow
the nuptials)
Qui l’autore confessa di non sapere un’altra cosa: se Lucia fosse, in
tutto e per tutto, malcontenta di essere stata spinta ad acconsentire. Noi
lasciamo, come lui, la cosa in dubbio.
Here the author confesses not to know something else: whether Lucia
was, in her heart, unhappy of having been pushed to consent. We leave,
as does he, this detail in doubt.
(Alessandro Manzoni, I promessi sposi [The Betrothed], 1840-42)
In these two extracts the uncertainty of the author indicates a willing
mischievousness, a nod to the reader who is called into play, as if the doubt
was directed to him.
73
While in the moving description of Cecilia’s death during the plague
epidemic the maybe is a ‘doubt of the author’ which he does not relate to a
character’s thoughts. The narrator doesn’t decide exactly how old the girl is,
it is as if in seeing her he assumed her age approximately from her
appearance.
(6) Portava essa in collo una bambina, di forse nov’anni, morta, ma tutta
bene accomodata, co’ capelli divisi sulla fronte, con un vestito
bianchissimo, come se quelle mani l’ avessero adornata per una festa
promessa da tanto tempo e data per premio
She carried in her arms a small girl, maybe nine years old, dead, but
neatly groomed, with her hair combed across her forehead, wearing a
pure white dress, as if those hands had adorned her for a party long
promised and conceded as a prize.
(Alessandro Manzoni, I promessi sposi (The Betrothed), 1840-42)
I’d like to compare this extract to another from a more recent author, in
which the author concedes himself an approximation, this time a temporal
one.
(7) With all likelihood Lambert got up around six o’clock, like every other
day (Georges Simenon, Les Complices, 1956).
The note with all likelihood isn’t the character’s thought, but the external
narrator’s, who, instead of deciding the time, reports it with a note of
uncertainty based on the protagonist’s habits. But, we ask ourselves
provocatively, was it necessary? It is he, the author, who decides what time
Lambert gets up (as in the extract by Manzoni regarding the girl’s age). He
could have done so without reserve. The narrator’s uncertainty lazily
becomes part of the story itself.
Lodge (1992) observes how these author intrusions fell out of fashion
towards the end of the 19th century, as they damaged the illusion of realism,
or they remained only with an ironic undertone.
(8) It seemed to Lucy that that brief lecture was quite spot on; the reader
may have seen it as an unfortunate blunder. But if Miss Bartlett had
noticed, it is not known, as it is impossible to know the mind of elderly
people. It is likely the girl would have continued talking, but they were
interrupted by the entrance of the lady of the house (Edward Morgan
Forster, A Room with a View, 1908).
Here the readers presence is explicit, hi is addressed directly to make up for
the intellectual limits of the character Miss Bartlett, maybe due to her less
perspicacious age than that of the reader himself.
74
With these mischievous nods the novelist puts him omniscient being into
crisis, but only as a ‘pretence’; he pretends to make an assertion on a reality
he doesn’t know thoroughly, even though he has penned it himself. As I
mentioned at the beginning, the paradoxical effect lays in the fact that, if the
story is a creation of the novelist, there is no reason for him to doubt what
he has produced himself.
This ironic reading, which recalls the awareness of the intention on the
narrator’s part, doesn’t always relate to the context of the story; it is hard for
instance to apply the notion to a novelist like Tolstoj, whose writing
presents but few playful aspects:
(9)
Boris Drubetskoj was cleaning with his hand his knees (that were all
muddy, probably as he too kissed the icon) and with a smile took a
step towards Pierre) (Lev Tolstoj, War and Peace, 1869).
(10) “Ecoutez, chére Annette”, the prince said, taking at once his
companion by the hand to, who knows why, pull it down. “Arrange
this affair for me, and I will be your most faithful servant forever
more” (Lev Tolstoj, War and Peace, 1869).
The markers probably, who knows why, cannot be referred to a narrator
within the story, to a character who sees and describes the behaviours of the
others. Tolstoj is the all-together omniscient author, and, differently from
aforementioned examples, it is not easy to attribute him meta-textual nods
bearing a playful undertone. We could say that the distance between the
empirical writer, in other words the real person who is writing, and the
narrator is extremely short, as is also observed by Pugliatti (1985) and it is
such to make the paradoxical effect of the ‘not knowing why’ of the
introduction of the uncertainty in his story more the result of identifying
himself with the reality he is describing – that he invents as if he were
witnessing it – an identification he imposes on himself right to the finest
details, as a purely intellectual exercise, in other words as a sort of
imagination bordering on perception, much like children often do. Perhaps
Tolstoj really had this ability. His observation is not only visual, it does not
relate only to gestures, but it also appears to be auditory, if we think of the
extraordinary realism of his dialogues; as if he cannot help but listen. In the
conversations his characters hold with one another the fullness of meaning,
implied and not, the introspective finesse mixes with phrases, gestures,
individual twitches and mannerisms, reported his such precision to make us
think of a kind of listening one cannot withdraw from, just like he cannot
withdraw from remembering visual events.
Tolstoj was an extraordinary observer and analyst of communication, its
two opposite functions of harmony and conflict, careful to the moves of the
construction of a social consensus as to words as a subtle weapon. In all his
75
novels he puts into play the various typologies of conversation, of dialogue
and monologue, relating them to the personalities of the characters,
recounting their characteristics, investigating the causes of verbal and nonverbal instances of communication, but also depicting the randomness and
gratuitousness that are borne from finding oneself immersed in the selfregulated river of conversation and gestures. A randomness in front of
which the author feels obliged to ask himself: ‘who knows why ’.
Jumping to yet another time to take into account an extract from Italo
Calvino, in which the ‘adventure of a reader’ is narrated, fluctuating
between the attraction of the sea, a women’s temptation, but mostly the
pleasure of reading from which he wouldn’t want to be distracted.
(11) Lì Amedeo si fermò. Su di una sporgenza piana stese i suoi capi di
vestiario, piegati per bene, e sopra posò, a suola in su, i sandali,
perché un colpo di vento non avesse a portare via tutto (in realtà
tirava appena una bava d’aria, dal mare, ma quello doveva essere un
suo gesto di precauzione abituale)
Amedeo stopped there. He laid his items of clothing on a flat ledge,
neatly folded, and on top of them he rested, soles up, his sandals, so
that a gust of wind wouldn’t blow everything away (in truth there was
but a vague hint of a breeze, from the sea, but that must have been a
typical precautionary measure of his).
(Italo Calvino, Gli amori difficili, 1970)
Here the author questions the logic he has given the character (fear of the
gust of wind), introducing a doubt of his; he disassociates from it by
attributing the bather’s behaviour more than to the risk of wind to a
meticulous ritual.
3.
Conclusion and discussion proposal
I have previously mentioned the collaboration between narrator and reader,
the complicit and challenging relationship that is set between them in the
interpretation of the text. The reader fills the gaps that the author leaves
deliberately open-ended, he draws meaning from what is implicit, from
what is not said to mislead, to achieve an interpretation that may coincide,
but which doesn’t necessarily, with that of the author.
This interaction between producer and consumer is my cue for another
consideration, of a psychological nature, relating to the connection between
the ‘author’s doubt’ with a reader’s life and how he poses himself towards a
piece of literature.
In front of a piece of fiction there is a suspension of disbelief. In other
words we don’t ask ourselves if what we are reading or seeing is true, we
76
rely in what is being relayed to us, accepting its improbability as its
ambiguity. Nevertheless, we don’t confuse the make-believe with the true.
We possess an ability that allows us to distinguish between a story, a film,
any other form of fiction, from a description of reality.
Nevertheless it is difficult to claim that the world of reality and that of
the make-believe are entirely separate. As Iser (1979) argues, fiction and
reality cannot be opposed to each other, but communicate with each other;
fiction is a medium to recount something about reality.
They are not separated but only for the obvious reason that one draws
from the other, but a novel or a film can tell the story of true events or at
least draw inspiration from them, also because – and this is what concerns
us in this analysis – the evidence of this drawing from one another are
present in the reader’s mind, as obviously they are in the author’s, in such a
way that is inherent to the development of the work itself. In other words, if
from an aesthetic point of view it makes no difference that what is narrated
is true or false (for instance, asking oneself about the ‘true story’ of the Nun
of Monza in Manzoni’s The Betrothed), it does make a difference to ask
oneself the question of ‘being truthful’.
To this end we should remember Bateson’s analyses of the paradoxical
and of the levels of abstraction of language and behaviour, and in particular
of play, of the message ‘this is play’. For Bateson (1956) play, which he
observed among children as well as animals, is important not so much to
acquire an understanding of roles, but because we learn that roles, frames,
exist in the first place, that they can be crossed, that these positions can
change and replace each other, moving from the true to the make-believe,
from the serious to the playful. ‘This is play’ labels one behaviour, but at the
same time hints to its opposite, the serious, it informs that I am playing, but
telling it I am not playing. It is a similar paradox to that of the liar: is he who
says: ‘I am lying’ lying or telling the truth? If he tells the truth, he is actually
lying, if he lies, he is in fact telling the truth. Bateson’s intuition in relation
to play though is even more subtle. It concerns not so much the assertion
‘This is play’ but the question ‘Is this play?’.
To paraphrase Bateson, we could put forward the hypothesis that art, in
particular literature, is based not so much on the premise that ‘this is
fiction’, but rather on the question ‘is this fiction?’ – a question which tends
to remain unanswered, helping to make the world of storytelling magical.
Regardless of every one of our acquired convictions as disenchanted
readers who know that ‘reality’ is only such within the text, we are to some
extent lead to believe its existence beyond the text, in one or several of the
directions the text points us towards.
What I am attempting to argue is that narrators’ ‘maybe’, this fluctuating
between the certain and the possible, to some extent replicates our own selfawareness as readers. Narrative doubt is the tie between the true and the
make-believe, evidence of the breakdown of a distinction between the two
77
realms, the lapsus that reveals our weakness. It is as if the narrator placed
himself in the role of the reader favouring his weak points, his tendency to
overlap the factual and the hypothetical, the weak points which, at the end
of a novel, make us wonder: ‘how will it end?’
Confronted with the make-believe, whether literary or in film – the child
is scared, or he is moved by what happens to the character. To a less intense
degree, we all do the same. Does an ambiguous ending, for example, not
invite us to ask ourselves questions beyond the text? ‘What will they do
after?’ ‘Will they separate?’ ‘Will they meet again?’ These questions we ask
ourselves are on top of those we continuously ask while reading the text.
Because a novel, a story, will always have dark sides to it, or at the very
least ambiguous ones. The suspension of disbelief, the ‘maybe’ relates to the
ambiguity that a plot or a character goes through during the course of a
narration.
Yes, I know, but anyway. We could apply to literary fiction the analysis
that a psychoanalyst, Mannoni (1969), makes in relation to those
paradoxical movements of the unconscious in which a belief outlives its
disproof. ‘It is not true, but I believe it’. ‘I know it is false, but still’.
The beauty of reading, with the imagination that always goes with it,
would not be possible if even the disenchanted reader was not subject to the
confusion, if he did not have a space in his psyche in which the makebelieve and the real are mixed up, in an uncontrollable distraction from the
‘I’.
References
Bateson, Gregory. 1956. “The Message ‘This is Play’”. Group processes, 2,
145-241.
Bongelli, Ramona and Andrzej Zuckowski. 2008. Indicatori Linguistici
Percettivi e Cognitivi. Roma: Aracne Editrice.
Bruner, Jerome. 1986. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, London:
Harvard University Press.
Dickens, Charles. 1841. The Old Curiosity Shop. London-New York:
Oxford University Press, 1951.
Calvino, Italo. 1970. Gli Amori Difficili. Milano: Mondadori.
Eco, Umberto. 1979. Lector in Fabula. Milano: Bompiani.
Forster, Edward M. 1908. A Room with a View. Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1958.
Goffmann, Erving. 1975. Frame analysis. Harvard University Press.
Greimas, Algirdas J.. 1966. Semantique structurale. Paris: Larousse.
Iser, Wolfgang. 1978. The Act of Reading. A Theory of Aesthetic Response.
Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.
Mannoni, Octave. 1969. La funzione dell’immaginario. Milano: Bompiani.
78
Manzoni, Alessandro. 1841. I Promessi Sposi. Milano: Garzanti.
Metzger, Wolfgang. 1954. Psychologie. Darmstadt: Steinkopff.
Mizzau, Marina. 1998. Storie come vere. Strategie communicative in testi
narrativi. Milano: Feltrinelli.
Proust, Marcel. 1919. A l’Ombre des Jeunes Filles en Fleur. Paris:
Gallimard.
Pugliatti, Paola. 1985. Lo sguardo nel racconto. Bologna: Zanichelli.
Searle, John R.. 1975. “The Logic of Fictional Discourse”. New Literacy
History, 6(2), 319-332.
Simenon, Georges. 1956. Les Complices. George Simenon Limited.
Tolstoj, Lev. 1869. War and Peace.
79
Persuasive communication and construction of
certainty in colonial Brazil
Marina Massimi
Universidade de São Paulo (Brasil)
mmassimi3@yahoo.com
Abstract
Aim of this research is the persuasive communication in preaching
performed in Brazil of the Modern Age. The sermons of Father Antonio
Vieira, the famous Luso-Brazilian preacher, are analyzed. The method is
historical cultural analysis. Result is that preaching is the product of a
complex process of construction of certainty that, through the ordained use
of the word according to the precepts of Rhetoric, obtains the effect of
mobilizing the psychic dynamism of the recipients and thereby leads to
intellectual certainty concerning the transmitted doctrinal content and to
moral certainty concerning the pertinence of the reform of customs
proposed by the preacher.
Keywords:
rhetoric.
1.
Persuasive communication, Antônio Vieira, psychology and
Introduction
Persuasive communication is object of this research in the field of cultural
history. It was made by preachers, especially those who belonged to the
Society of Jesus, operating in Brazil of the Modern Age, with emphasis on
psychological and rhetorical dimensions of the construction process of
certainty achieved through this cultural practice. The sources chosen for our
analysis are preaching performed in Brazil which, due to their importance
recognized at the time, were also printed, after being given orally, and also
instruction manuals of rhetoric kind and of ecclesiastical rhetoric
widespread in the West Catholic and in Brazil of the Modern Age and used
for the writing of sermons. For example, the sermons of Father Antonio
Vieira, the famous Luso-Brazilian preacher, are analyzed (Massimi, 2005).
The ambit of analysis is the history of psychological knowledge as part
of the cultural history. According to Massimi (2014), the History of
Psychological Knowledge in Brazilian culture aims at inquiring aspects of
the view of the world of a culture, related to psychological practices and
80
concepts, whereas the definition of “psychological” is conventional and
transitory, to be replaced during the survey by the terminology and
demarcation of relevant fields to the specific socio-cultural universes that
were investigated. Such knowledge can be obtained by investigative
pathways that try to show through historical views by means of the sources,
main objects, methods, and actors in the construction of psychological
knowledge and practices in Brazil over time. In this universe, one must
consider the presence of distinct cultural protagonists of construction of
such knowledge in different historical periods: Native, Lusitano, and LusoBrazilian people; travelers and merchants of French, Dutch, Spanish, NorthAmerican nationality; Africans deported by slavery; immigrants from
Europe and other countries. These subjects reflect the composition of
Brazilian society, marked by complex cultural stratification, by different
temporalities and, therefore, by various modalities of elaboration of
psychological experience. In this universe, one must consider the presence
of distinct cultural protagonists of development of such knowledge in
different historical periods: these subjects reflect the composition of
Brazilian society, marked by complex cultural stratification, by various
temporalities and, therefore, by various modalities of elaboration of
psychological experience.
In this environment, the great unifying role was performed by the
missionaries of the Society of Jesus present since 1549 by invitation of the
Lusitanian crown with the purpose of evangelizing the natives and the
slaves and of religious assistance to the settlers. Initially residents in the
Province of Bahia, the missionaries dilated their presence in Brazil in the
regions of the northeast, north, central, south-central, up to the south. The
Jesuits remained in the country until mid-eighteenth century (1760) when
their expulsion occurred by decree of the Portuguese Secretary of State
Carvalho e Melo who exiled the Portugal Order of the oversea dominions
with general expropriation of their homes and their property. Over the two
centuries of its permanence and its presence in almost the entire length of
the Brazilian territory, the Society of Jesus took charge of translating
anthropological conceptions of the Western tradition, in a method of
formation of man, through education. At the same time, it favored the
mixture of social and cultural traditions of the Amerindian, African, and
Lusitanian people through the process of Christianization, striving to
promote a social policy aimed at the encouragement of intermarriage and
the creation of the first school system in the country oriented to all parts of
the colony. The Society of Jesus also promoted the development of cultural
and religious practices to integrate Indigenous, African, and European
cultures: we highlight, for example, the production of plays and poetry and
grammar textbooks in which the languages and traditions of oral culture of
the indigenous nations were transmitted in written form. With all this, the
Jesuits aimed at promoting the establishment of a Christian social body in
81
the colony, where all social and racial components were inserted and united
by a Christian worldview. They sought to achieve this ideal in their villages
and especially in Missions (or Reductions) of the Thirty People in a territory
that now belongs in part to Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina (Massimi 2008).
It is known that the Jesuits widely used practices from the Society to
perform that unifying joining function, such as spiritual direction, or the
examination of consciousness, systematically employed in schools, and
practices inherent in Western religious culture, masterfully performed by the
members of the Order, such as persuasion, concerning criteria of judgment
and changes in customs, obtained by using rhetorically ordered word in
preaching (Massimi, 2005), or as the promotion of ritual celebrations with
the use of images, music, choreography, and gestures with the involvement
of expressive components from various folk traditions (Massimi and Conde,
2008).
2.
Background: persuasive communication as practice of cultural
transmission of knowledge in Brazil of colonial period and brief
characterization of this universe
The Brazilian context of colonial period was profoundly marked by orality.
The majority of the population was illiterate, or their access to the writings
was limited, taking into account also the absence of the press and academic
institutions in the country. In this realm, the process of cultural transmission
in colonial Brazil is largely a result of the spread of oratory understood as a
form of persuasive communication and means of knowledge. Since oratory
was common practice of different traditions present in Brazil (European,
especially Lusitanian, Indian, and African), it constituted a common ground
which provided the consolidation of a peculiar culture formed by the
mixture of very different cultural traditions.
From the historical point of view, attention to this feature demands
considering the insertion of oral culture in regimes of historicity different
from those of written culture.
According to Hartog (2003), the regime of historicity is created insofar as
the time is not simple flow, but is the human experience of time. In it, the
human being experiences a detachment of himself to himself (a distance
between who he was in the past and who he is in the present) and through
the narrative gives himself a historical identity, in chronological order.
In this sense, in different societies, the cultures elaborated by the subjects
who compose them have several regimes of historicity experienced and
transmitted by these subjects: they possess their own experiences of
temporality and historical identities and narratives peculiar to these regimes.
In case the temporalities may not be homologated, the historian must deal
82
with them attentive to the differences involving various modalities of
narratives, transmission, expression, historical identity, duration, etc. The
plurality of cultural and social subjects that integrate the Brazilian social
contexture is carrier of different modalities of elaboration of psychological
experience submitted to different regimes of historicity, that is, different
experiences of temporality. Therefore, the methodological necessity is of
taking care of the apprehension of the meanings of temporality, insofar as
we undertake a historical study.
In general, oral cultures have a temporality whose duration is longer than
that of written cultures, and, in this sense, they are provided with a
permanence which may extend in time, even if they are subjected to
changes.
In which sense is it possible to state that oratory was a diffuse activity
and quite appreciated by the population in the colonial society context?
News and descriptions concerning these practices in the Brazilian social
sphere are given in reports and letters of travelers and missionaries since the
earliest times of colonization (Abbeville, 1614/1975). One of the oldest
pieces of information appears in a narrative from 1593 by the visitor Father
of the Society of Jesus, the Portuguese Fernão Cardim (1548-1625):
interestingly, however, it refers not to the preaching of the missionaries, but
to the oratorical activities of the Indians themselves as an occurrence of the
pastoral visit of missionary priests. The report deserves to be examined once
it evidences the peculiarities of Indian rhetoric and emphasizes the great
propensity of the natives to practice the word, and also it describes the
modality in which a common ground for communication between natives
and missionaries based on orality was constituted. As a result, the
familiarity of native populations using speech to persuade and teach was
perhaps one of the reasons for the importance given to preaching by
missionaries as a means of christianization of Brazilian populations.
The letters of the Jesuit missionaries also emphasize that the preaching of
the indigenous chiefs was necessary to create the trust of their tribes in the
word preached by the priests.1 Cardim reports that, in the village of Espírito
Santo, after the reception by the “principais”2 (principals), he was taken in
procession to the Church by the Indians with dances and music of flutes
along with two other visitors, Father Cristóvão de Gouveia and brother
Barnabé Telho. We quote the report maintaining its original style and
writing:
After the prayer, the priest requires them to make a speech in the
language, the one they were very comforted and pleased; that night, the
1
Several documents attest to the fact: for example, in the letter sent by José de Anchieta
from São Vicente to Lainez, on January 8, 1565, (Anchieta, 1988).
2
This is an expression used in missionary reports of that time to indicate the political
authorities of the native populations.
83
principal Indians, great languages, preached about the priest’s life in their
own way, which is as follows: they begin preaching in the dawn while
lying on a hammock during a span of half an hour, then they get up and
move through the whole village, tiptoed very leisurely, and their
preaching is also paused, phlegmatic, and slow; the principal Indians
often repeat the words with seriousness; they tell in such preaching all
the works, storms, death hazards which the priest would suffer, while
coming so far to visit and comfort them, and also to initiate them in
praising God for the received grace; and they bring their gifts to the
priest, in thankfulness. This was to see them coming with their things,
etc., ducks, chickens, pigs, flour, beijus with some roots and vegetables
of the earth (Cardim 1593/1980, 146).
The chiefs of the tribe, appropriating the missionary preacher’s discourse,
translated it into their own language in order to communicate it to the
community, thus legitimizing the presence of the priest while posing
themselves as irreplaceable mediators between him and the people. In fact,
Cardim states that:
When the visitor priest arrived, these principals preached in their way in
respect with the work by which the priest suffered on the pathway,
passing the sea waves, and coming from so far, exposed to so many
hazards to comfort them, inciting everyone to rejoice with so much
welfare, and that they could bring him his things (Cardim 1593/1980,
152-153).
In the same document, Cardim provides information concerning the value of
oratory to the Indians when describing the indigenous huts and their social
organization.
As a result, a principal, whose authority was mainly exerted by the use of
the word, lived in each “hut”. This one used to exhort listeners to work,
excite them to war, and was highly respected by all. These exhortations
were initially made within the hut, “through preaching”: the chief began his
speech at dawn, lying in a hammock, during a span of half an hour; then, in
early morning, he got up and moved through the village continuing his
preaching, “which he makes loudly, very leisurely, often repeating the
words” (Cardim, 1593/1980, 152-153).
Cardim continues the report stating that among the principal Indians and
preachers, “there are some elderly ancient people with great name and
authority among them, who have a reputation throughout the interior, three
hundred and four hundred leagues, and more.” He affirms that the natives
estimate very much “a good speaker who they call as the speech lord. In his
hand there are the life and death, and he will carry them wherever one wants
without contradiction.” When they want to test whether an individual has
84
this capability, “several of them gather together in order to see if they can
make him tired, talking a lot all night with him, and sometimes, during two
or three days, without being indisposed.” (Cardim, 1593/1980, 152 -153).
The description of Cardim reveals the surprise of the religious
Portuguese concerning the importance attributed to the use of the word by
Brazilian Indians: unexpected point of convergence between the unfamiliar
culture of these populations and the immense effort for communication of
the European culture of that period, which is evident in the creation of new
instruments such as the press, in the search of contacts and knowledge of
new peoples, new cultures, and new languages, and the great development
of rhetoric art and its infinite possibilities as pedagogical and doctrinaire
means.
3.
Persuasive communication and rhetorical art in the Brazilian
context
In the ambit of such complex and rich universe of cultural exchange and
communication, we address here a specific facet of this universe: the
practice of sacred oratory or preaching carried out by the priests of the
Society of Jesus, a practice which intended to convey knowledge
characterized by certainty regarding the doctrine and conduct, and to
persuade the listener concerning the value of truth of these certainties and of
the convenience to model his behavior and actions based on them.
The sources chosen for our analysis are preaching performed in Brazil
which, due to their importance recognized at the time, were also printed,
after being given orally, and also instruction manuals of rhetoric kind and of
ecclesiastical rhetoric widespread in the West Catholic and in Brazil of the
Modern Age and used for the writing of sermonsFor example, the sermons
of Father Antonio Vieira (1608-1697), the famous Luso-Brazilian preacher,
are analyzed.
The sermons are taken here as cultural transmission devices of certainty
and persuasion to change habits and conceptions in listeners, devices which
seek to carry out this function insofar as certain conditions defined by two
fundamental premises should follow: a conception of the process of
knowledge acquisition and transmission in environments characterized by
orality; a conception related to the communicative and persuasive effects
arising from the well-organized use of the word (Ardissino 1997; Ardissino
1998; Rusconi 1981; Rusconi 1996; Battistini 1981; Battistini 2000; Bolzoni
2002; Fumaroli 1995; Fumaroli 1999; Majorana 1996).
These aims suggest criteria for a specific selection of the sources which
are object of research, and from the methodological point of view, they
indicate some pathways to take and some conditions to be observed. Firstly,
the requirement to consider that such communicative practices of certainty
85
fall into a different regime of historicity from the contemporary experience
of temporality, and also to consider that the communicative efficacy of this
practice should be evaluated on the horizon properly to the regime where it
sets up and operates itself. In the considered regime, the role of memory and
narrative is especially important. For example: the preaching of a sermon
can take several hours and it is in this time span that the desired effect
occurs. By contrast, it would be totally unfeasible nowadays once the
success depends on the speed of information transmission. This attention
concerning the diversity of regimes of historicity avoids anachronisms.
Secondly, the reading of the sources selected for analysis leads to
evidence some topoi, that is, the common places to be evidenced, according
to the method suggested by Pécora (1994) in the analysis of the Antonio
Vieira’s sermon work. The methodological proposal asserted by Pécora
suggests a modality of analysis of the texts based on the pursuit of the ‘base
logic’ which pervades and inserts them into their universe of production,
searching to detect the systematic recurrence of certain essential topics (the
common places) articulated among them. Following such perspective, the
categories, or topics, could not be defined in a preconceived manner when
reading the text (which would necessarily lead to anachronisms and
presentism), but seized (almost like in a phenomenological analysis)
through the careful reading of the text evidencing the recurrences of topoi.
4.
Results
The historical analysis of the sources reveals that preaching is the result of a
complex process of construction that, through the ordained use of the word
according to the precepts of Rhetoric, obtains the effect of mobilizing the
psychic dynamism of the recipients and thereby leads to intellectual
certainty concerning the transmitted doctrinal content and to moral certainty
concerning the pertinence of the reform of customs proposed by the speaker.
The objectives of the rhetorical art (to delight, to move, to instruct) imply
the person of the recipients in all dimensions thematized by psychological
and anthropological knowledge of the time: corporeal, psychological, and
spiritual. External and internal senses (memory, imagination, common
sense, and cogitative power), appetitive (sensory and intellectual), and
cognitive potencies should be involved in an integrated motion that proves
essential to persuade listeners and construct certainty in an effective and
lasting way. The long tradition of word art and philosophical knowledge
about the dynamics of the person effectively converge to this scope, from
the contributions of classical and medieval authors, such as Aristotle,
Seneca, Cicero, and Augustine, and their modern interpreters, for example,
Luis de Granada (1504-1588) and Cipriano Soares SI (1562). This operation
of construction of certainty through the art of the word is articulated with a
86
realistic theory of knowledge which states that the process of rational
knowledge is based on the evidence. (Soares, 1580)
The analysis will take place in four topics.
5.
Epistemological support of the composition of sermons
The epistemological concept that supports the composition of sermons is
derived from the Aristotelian-Thomistic philosophy. According to this
philosophy, one can know or get knowledge only from the data obtained
through the sensitive sensory pathway, that is, through the five external
senses.
Nothing happens in the intellect that had not first passed through
sensitivity: it is possible to know only from the data obtained by sensory
via. The objects perceived by the senses give rise to representations which
are internally processed in the form of internal representation (ghost). The
internal senses, which according to Thomas Aquinas are the fantasy (or
imagination), cogitative power, memory, common sense, in their prerational apprehension of things, establish the relationship between
sensitivity and cognition (Rahner 1989). This concept presupposes three
groundworks: the similarity between the image and reality; the objective
value of knowledge based on the intentionality of the ghost (namely, its
reference to the world outside the mind); and the assertion that the concept
can be communicated only by sensitive means.
However, early in the sixteenth century, the transparency of the sensitive
means starts to be challenged by the development of modern science and
philosophical reflection that follow it. Arendt (1999) claims that the arrival
in the world of scientific instruments produced by human technology, such
as the telescope, contributed to a radical change in the conception of
knowledge: the technical capacity of the homo faber able to build
knowledge replaced the acuity of observation and contemplation of the
scientist.
The truth and reality are no longer conceived as dates and revealed to the
senses: the mediation of appearance is always an interference which in some
cases can be deceiving.
The process culminates in the philosophical position of Descartes
featured by methodical doubt. The path to certainty (method) will be
identified in mathematics and experimental science, where the human
cognitive skills depend on the technology yielded by man. In this new
conceptual horizon, the sensory evidence can be illusory: “it can be a sign or
it can mask the nothingness” (Jori 1998, 292). The sign veils and unveils
(Pécora 2001).
This new configuration of the cultural universe of the nascent modernity
requires an effort from the word and especially from its interpreter, the
87
preacher, in order to build confidence in the listener and to persuade him/her
on the value of the sign of reality. In the socio-cultural context of posTridentine Catholicism, as the Brazilian colonial period was, this picture
linked to the ministry of the sacred word is of great authority, insofar as he
is considered the legitimate interpreter of the grammar in the world, the true
connoisseur of the “science of signs” (Pécora 2001) .
6.
The rhetoric and the compositions of sermons
The rhetoric holds the composition of sermons and assumes the role of
organizing the mediation of the "signs" of its grammar in the world, through
the creation of eloquent means of communication, according to the three
main functions that support this type: to delight the senses, to move
affections, and to teach. The eloquence amplifies the sign function of words,
gestures, voice, and images, and it expands their efficiency so that they
become sensitive vehicles of the concept, evocation of what is absent,
through analogue and imaginative processes. In this sense, the rhetoric is a
fundamental tool of knowledge, since the act of thinking itself requires the
use of images and simulacra stored in memory. The representation of the
thing thus produced mobilizes the will linked not only to knowledge but
also to sensitivity and imagination, and that can act on the sensitivity and on
feelings, through the mediation of the interior senses, to guide them, sort
them, and discipline them, according to the ideal Aristotelian-Thomistic, the
political government of the soul (as the philosophers of the Society of Jesus
of Coimbra say). In short, the objectives of the art of rhetoric involving the
person of the recipients in all sizes thematized psychological and
anthropological knowledge: body, mental, and spiritual. The long tradition
of the art of speech and philosophical knowledge on the dynamism of the
person effectively collaborate in this endeavor, since the contribution of
classical and medieval authors (Aristotle, Seneca, Cicero, and Augustine)
and their modern interpreters (Granada and Soares SI ).
7.
Evidentia. The ideal of evidence in the common rhetoric and
epistemology of the first modern age.
Reflection about the importance of “evidentia” characterizes the new
eloquence widespread since the Council of Trent. At the same time, the
knowledge to ‘evidence’ is ideally stated in the science of the sixteenth and
seventeenth century, insofar as mathematical evidence is understood as
internal experience and evidence shows sensitive observation for the natural
scientist. The authors of treatises on preaching incorporate the concept of
“έναργέια” proposed by Quintilian (35-100) and translate the Latin word
88
“evidentia” or representation. It is, in short, the ability of language to evoke
presence, establishing the link between visibility and emotion, the ability to
represent things so strongly, to make them look visible.
Aresi claims that the ability of word is rhetorically elaborated in
representing things in such a way that “one does not just seem to hear them,
but also to see them” (1611 cited by Jori, 1998, 145).
On this type of evidence certainty is based. More than the result of the
argumentative structure of the discourse, the communication of certainty is
through the opening in the space where it can become the “palpable
experience”, the “sensible proof.” The evidence of the image, in this sense,
is much more persuasive than that produced by logical reasoning.
The metaphor becomes effective instrument of expression which gives
the form of the wise word: according to Tesauro (1625/1965), the metaphor
assigns an image with an idea, thus making the idea almost visible. The
frequent use of metaphor confirms the observations made by Huizinga
(1919/1995) that, in the late Middle Ages and the beginning of Modernity,
the trend of Western thought for the solidification of images was affirmed.
A small book by Gaspar Loarte well known in the Modern Age (Loarte
1570) diffuses in suitable terms to the popular use the method of compositio
loci, or composition of the place, as proposed by Loyola in his Spiritual
Exercises: “With respect to the steps of Passion, when you meditate them,
you should feel that they must be meditated as if they happened in front of
your eyes (...) you should imagine being present in the same places where
these things happened” (Loarte 1570, 29). The compositio loci is a complex
psychological operation which Ignatius proposed in the Second Week of the
Spiritual Exercises, whose goal is to form in the mind, through the
representation of internal senses, a ‘place’ where the subject in first person
can engage himself in the represented scene, and that becomes a space for
contemplation, knowledge, devotion.
Sensitive knowledge is an integral part of the construction process of
certainty: the word is conceived in such a way that the preacher, through the
art of rhetoric, can make the subject capable of “phantasm processing” and
thereby causes the dynamism of knowledge. However, this evidence cannot
be limited just to the sensitive: it must also be evidence of affection and
intellect. According to the theologian and rhetorical Spaniard Luis de
Granada, in fact, evidence is able to move inside the other one who is
himself moved (Granada 1578/1945). The evidence must involve the whole
person and only becomes full evidence to the extent that manifests as
personal event. The power of the word derives ultimately from the
experience of those who said it; experience in which thought and practice
are the size of the unit and dynamic phenomenon that is the person
(Massimi 2005).
89
8.
An exemplification through the sermons of Antonio Vieira
Antonio Vieira’s 3 sermons are a rich example of cultural dynamics
described above. From their reading and analysis we can better understand
the fact that construction of the certainty and persuasive communication
composes a single process. We analyze two sermons: one of his most
famous sermons (in Lisbon at the Court, 1655) and a sermon preached in
1651 (Monastery Odivelas, Portugal).
In the first sermon preached in 1655, Vieira discusses the meaning and
function of preaching and offers his vision of the possibility of
communicating certainty and the conditions necessary for this to happen.
These conditions are: the person of the preacher, his knowledge, the subject
matter, the voice which he speaks, and the style. The first and most
important of such conditions on the person of the preacher is his own
experience of life that must be exemplary manifestation of what he says.
The strength of the word depends on the example of the life of the preacher.
Such example depends on the strength of the word which is only this way
insofar as the word is action. Effective communication is the revelation of a
fact and, in this manner, it works only if its contents can be verified by the
senses, namely, they can be heard, but can also be seen: “listeners might see
what they hear from us!” (Vieira 1655/2000, 37). And in order to prove
what he says, Vieira cites an example derived from his experience of
preaching: “Here is a preacher who tells his listeners about the Christ
Passion.” Vieira narrates that Christ was submitted to the court of Caiaphas,
the way He was deceived; then Vieira reports how they dressed Christ with
a mantle of purpleness. And the audience listens with attention. And the
preacher continues narrating that they put a crown of thorns on His head.
The audience listens with equal attention. Next, the orator says that they tied
the Christ’s hands and put a scepter of cane in them. “The same serious
silence goes on, and the audience keeps attentive.” But suddenly, a curtain
on stage opens, and the statue of Ecce Homo Christ appears. And then,
everybody immediately lie down on the ground, hit their chest, crying,
screaming, etc... “What happened? What is new in the church?” (Vieira
1655/2000, 37): Vieira asks. The preacher had spoken of the mantle of
purpleness, crown of thorns, cane. “But why did the simple fact of talking
about it not produce any movement, as it is the case now? Because before
3
Father Antônio Vieira (1608, Lisbon, Portugal-July 18, 1697, Bahia, Brazil) was
a Portuguese Jesuit preacher and writer, the “prince” of Catholic orators of his time.
Brought when a child to Bahia, he studied under the Jesuits, and entered the Society of
Jesus in 1623, pronouncing his first vows in 1625. Vieira is one of greatest figures in the
seventeenth century. As an orator he is one of the world's masters, equally great in the
cathedrals and courts of Europe and the poor churches and chapels of Maranhão. He is
profoundly original and frequently sublime. After his ordination in 1653, he took up the
charge of defending Indian’s against the Portuguese settlers and he often preached to the
colonialist about theirs abuses.
90
Ecce Homo was heard and now Ecce Homo is seen” (Vieira 1655/2000, 38).
The narrative of the preacher came through the ears. The representation of
the figure enters their eyes. And he concludes that the reason why the
preachers produce little conversion effects on listeners with their practices is
because they preach only to the ears and not to the eyes. However, insofar
as the word of the preacher acquires visibility, it becomes "the stars of
heaven", visible to all, because they are very clear, very distinct, and very
high (Vieira 1655/2000, 40).
Effective communication is the revelation of a fact. And as such, it works
as if its contents may be verified by the senses: to be heard but also to be
seen. Here Vieira raises an issue that will continue in another sermon: the
visibility of the word also depends on its receptor. And the view itself can
mislead; so that to see the signs present in the world in their full evidence, it
is necessary to go through the path of “desengano” (path of restoration that
leads to true knowledge). And this way, the preacher is an authoritative
teacher.
In the sermon preached in 1651 (Monastery Odivelas, Portugal), which is
about the need to correct the excessive use of mirrors in female convents of
the period, Vieira relates to the possible mistake of vision caused by
disordered affections, such as self-esteem, anger, fear, etc. This disorder
results from the fact that the will not see what is actually portrayed, but what
it wants to see.
Vieira refers to the possible mistake of vision: “in our imagination, or
imaginative potency, located in the brain, the images of things that enter
through the senses and that philosophers call species are kept as secret
treasure.” But the presence of the “devil” (“self-deception”) among the
infinite species “can order and compose them in a more convenient way for
him in order to internally paint and represent in our imagination what can
bend, mold, and attract the appetite” (Vieira 1651/ 2001, 344). This is even
more serious in the case of self-knowledge, as in the case of people who use
the mirror to see themselves reflected in it. The misleading precisely
consists of cleaning the way we see ourselves and the things, from the
delusion of appearance, created by disordered affections, such as selfesteem, anger, fear, etc... The disorder is a result of the arbitrariness of the
will properly to the subject, which leads him to not see what is really
portrayed, but “what he wants and how he wants it to be” (Vieira,
1651/2001, 345).
The word of the preacher is the effective tool in the process of
“desengano.” This is not an uncritical reception of ‘certainties’: it is
required by the receiver that uses a specific criterion of discernment. The
possibility of certain knowledge obtained through the preached word, in
fact, must be verified and proven by the recipients on the basis of the
conditions laid down for its truthfulness and discussed by Vieira's sermon in
1655.
91
9.
Conclusion
It is concluded that the possibility of certainty is not so much as a statement
of doctrine, but as an event to be known, from the clues or signs that occur.
The certainty does not just have theoretical character and it is not just a
rhetorical construction, but it takes on experiential dimension and it
envolves both thought and practice. In fact, it concerns thought and practice
from both the one who speaks and the recipient. And his assertion on the
part of the communication and its recognition by the recipient require the
full involvement of the people involved in their somato-psychical-spiritual
dynamism.
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94
Paul Guimard entre humour et ironie
Yvonne Goga
University Babes-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca (Romania)
yvonne_goga@yahoo.fr
Abstract
In Paul Guimard, irony is not a bare linguistic fact, but a structure endowed
with philosophical substance that plays the role of a founding figure of
speech of his writing. The law that governs his universe is chance, the
unexpected, that henceforth makes everything swing between certainty and
uncertainty. In the novel Les premiers venus [First Commers], the rewriting
of the Genesis myth exploits the duplicity of irony, its capacity to transform
the uncertainties of human condition in generally valid certainties. This
function of irony is emphasized by the writer in numerous forms of peritexts
which make the object of the present analysis.
Keywords: Mythe, écriture, ironie, explicite, implicite, ironie du sort
1.
Introduction
Dans le roman Les premiers venus, parmi les derniers publiés, Paul Guimard
réécrit le mythe de la Genèse. La fiction, qui s’inspire des cinq premiers
livres de la Bible jusqu’au Déluge, gravite autour de la question du pêché
originel. L’écrivain parvient à créer une fiction avec ironie et humour, sans
perdre la lucidité de l’être pensant, mais surtout, sans perdre la sensibilité de
l’être sentant.
À partir de l’hypothèse que l’ironie est un principe fondateur de son
écriture, mes recherches s’intéressent en priorité à la manière dont Guimard
contourne, dans ce roman, les lieux communs du roman de la condition
humaine. Fondée sur l’ironie, la communication littéraire de l’écrivain se
trouve dans une permanente oscillation entre le certain et l’incertain, entre
l’explicite et l’implicite1.
1 Pour la précision de l’analyse, je rappelle la définition la plus commune de l’ironie :
figure de rhétorique par laquelle on dit le contraire de ce qu’on veut faire comprendre.
95
Deux axes seront proposés pour déployer l’analyse de cette oscillation
dans ce roman de Paul Guimard : l’examen des paratextes, notamment des
péritextes2, et l’étude de l’incipit et de la fin du roman.
2. Les péritextes
La dédicace
Le premier péritexte, qui mérite notre attention, est la dédicace : « À mon
Eve ». Le prénom de la « première venue », Eve, remplace tout autre mot
que l’écrivain aurait pu employer pour nommer son épouse à laquelle il
dédie le livre. Toutefois, la dédicace ouvre la voie vers des significations
proposées par le mythe biblique : soumission de la femme à l’Homme dont
elle est issue, charme, pureté, beauté, mais aussi tentation. L’ironie délicate,
utilisée par l’écrivain pour s’adresser à son épouse, entraîne cette richesse
de significations que le prénom de celle-ci, ou tout nom commun désignant
sa qualité – épouse, femme, compagne, conjointe –, auraient annulée. Elle
révèle déjà la manière dont l’écrivain conçoit le rôle de cette figure dans son
discours. L’emploi du mot « Eve » précédé de l’adjectif possessif confère à
la dédicace l’émotion 3 transmise par les sentiments éveillés par sa
compagne.
En même temps, l’emploi du prénom de la femme primordiale dévoile
l’intention de l’écrivain de se référer au mythe de la Genèse dans son
écriture. On peut donc remarquer qu’à partir de la dédicace du livre, l’ironie
impose sa présence et affirme son double rôle de médiateur dans la
transmission de l’émotion et dans la validation de la qualité du discours
littéraire.
Trois autres péritextes, dans lesquels l’ironie est présente, accompagnent
le texte du roman : deux épigraphes, situées en tête du livre, et un postscriptum. L’ironie est construite sur la dualité et la duplicité4.
2 Dans Seuils, Paris, éditions du Seuil, coll. "Poétique", 1987, Gérard Genette définit le
terme paratexte (ce qui entoure et prolonge le texte) et en distingue deux sortes : le
péritexte, le paratexte situé à l'intérieur du livre (le titre, les sous-titres, les intertitres, les
nom de l'auteur et de l'éditeur, la date d'édition, la préface, les notes, les illustrations, la
table des matières, la postface, la quatrième de couverture...) et l'épitexte, celui situé à
l'extérieur du livre (entretiens et interviews donnés par l'auteur avant, après ou pendant la
publication de l'œuvre, sa correspondance, ses journaux intimes...).
3 Dans son étude, Poétique de l'ironie, Paris, coll. "Points/Essais-Inédits", 2001, Pierre
Schoentjes souligne la dualité du Moi et l’émotion, importantes pour étudier les effets de
l'ironie, généralement absentes des études sur cette figure.
4 Voir à ce propos Tamine, Marcandier et Vivès 2007.
96
Les épigraphes
Le premier extrait est tiré d’Autobiographie de John Cowper Powys :
Ce qu’en réalité j’éprouve, c’est une pitié qui me serre et me soulève le
cœur pour tous les êtres vulnérables, meurtrissables victimes que nous
sommes tous de la grande puissance sadique qui a créé le monde 5
(Guimard 1997, 9).
L’extrait dévoile les réflexions de Guimard sur la condition humaine, qui
visent à annuler tout éloge fait au Créateur du monde. Dans son roman, ces
réflexions seront soulignées, d’une part, par la présentation des erreurs que
le Créateur suprême commet à l’égard de ses propres créations, et d’autre
part, par le processus d’humanisation d’Adam et d’Eve. L’écrivain ne
critique pas la Divinité dans la lignée du scepticisme romantique d’un
Alfred de Vigny, qui propose la leçon de la dignité orgueilleuse, mais dans
l’esprit d’une âme sensible communiquant avec les autres humains dans la
souffrance causée par le sort commun. La présence de cet extrait en tête du
livre semble avoir le double rôle de mettre sous le signe du doute les
certitudes annoncées par la Bible, et d’orienter le discours guimardien vers
l'ironie romantique. La dualité de l'ironie rhétorique est ainsi évidente
comme plaisir et amertume à la fois. En même temps, avec cet extrait,
Guimard dévoile indirectement ses idées philosophiques, sa position de non
croyant, et simultanément sa démarche scripturale dans la réécriture du
mythe de la Genèse. Guimard s’avère être moins intéressé par le contenu de
ce mythe que par les réflexions scripturales qu’il soulève, et c’est la raison
pour laquelle il fera la transcription de cet épisode de la Bible dans le roman.
La deuxième épigraphe du roman de Paul Guimard est tirée de La
Semaine Sainte de Louis Aragon :
Ceci n’est pas un roman historique. Toute ressemblance avec des
personnages ayant vécu, toute similitude de noms, de lieux, de détails, ne
peut être l’effet que d’une pure coïncidence, et l’auteur en décline la
responsabilité
au
nom
des
droits
imprescriptibles
de
l’imagination (Guimard 1997,10).
Cet extrait renforce la suggestion de l’extrait précédent de voir dans la Bible
un prétexte à l’écriture. L’effet de l’ironie réside dans le contraste entre le
réel et l’irréel. Guimard reprend le texte d’Aragon dans la même intention
de se défendre contre l’accusation supposée de ses lecteurs d’avoir
5 Sans doute Guimard a-t-il lu le livre de l’écrivain anglais paru en 1934 grâce à la
traduction française de 1965, réalisée par Marie Canavaggia. Les idées de l’écrivain
rencontrent celles de l’écrivain anglais.
97
transposé des noms, des lieux ou des personnages du réel, alors qu’il n’a
obéi qu’à l’imagination. Or le réel, dans son roman, n’existe pas à
proprement parler. Il n’existe que dans et par le texte de la Bible, donc dans
l’imagination scripturale. L’écrivain utilise ainsi une forme ironique pour
dévoiler la qualité de son imaginaire de contester et de créer par l’écriture.
L’emploi des épigraphes est d’ailleurs très fréquent dans l’écriture
guimardienne. L’écrivain les place aussi bien au début des récits, qu’au
début des parties ou des chapitres. Il leur fait dépasser la fonction habituelle
d’annoncer et de résumer le contenu. Leurs significations sont visibles, dans
leur ensemble, dans un livre, ayant le but de laisser surgir la philosophie
guimardienne bâtie sur l’ironie. Il s’agit de l’ironie du sort 6 , concept
fondateur de la philosophie de Guimard, devenu aussi le titre de l’un de ses
premiers romans.7
Dans le cas du roman Les premiers venus, les épigraphes mettent en
évidence les idées de l’écrivain sur l’acte scriptural.
Le post-scriptum
À la signification des épigraphes correspond symétriquement celle du postscriptum.
Le roman garde d’un bout à l’autre comme héros principaux Adam et
Eve. De temps en temps, dans les moments-clés de l’histoire de ces héros
apparaît Satan. Dans le post-scriptum, c’est à ce personnage que l’écrivain
se réfère, notamment à son immortalité, présentée par le même jeu de
l’ironie :
Figé dans leur éternité, les Immortels n’ayant pas de passé ne disposent
pas de souvenirs. Par contre, ils n’ignorent pas l’avenir. Rien de
surprenant, donc, à ce que Satan cherche parfois des références, des
points de comparaison ou des définitions dans sa mémoire du future. On
n’accusera pas l’auteur de se parer de plumes illustres lorsqu’il profite
de ce privilège sans recourir aux guillemets pour souligner des citations
si transparentes quelles ne peuvent abuser personne 8 (Guimard 1997,
151).
6 Selon Pierre Schoentjes 2001, les Français considèrent l'ironie comme une raillerie et
parlent d'une "ironie du sort" dans une perspective de malheur. Dans l’acception de Paul
Guimard, le message de ce concept est optimiste: on peut dépasser l’effet de malheur si l’on
sait profiter du concours de circonstances et que l’on accepte de vivre son moment présent,
en évitant les incursions dans le passé.
7 Paul Guimard, Ironie du sort, Paris, Denoël, 1961.
8 Dans la citation, nous avons gardé les italiques utilisées par l’écrivain pour présenter le
post-scriptum.
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En tant qu’immortel, Satan n’a pas de passé. L’immortalité invalide sa
faculté de se souvenir et rend active ce que Guimard appelle « sa mémoire
du futur ». Le post-scriptum annule toute incertitude qui enveloppe ce
personnage, et rend explicite l’implicite. Guimard dévoile la signification
d’alter ego qu’il donne à Satan par l’antiphrase : « On n’accusera pas
l’auteur de se parer de plumes illustres lorsqu’il profite de ce privilège sans
recourir aux guillemets pour souligner des citations si transparentes quelles
ne peuvent abuser personne ». Cette forme d’ironie laisse comprendre le
privilège de l’écrivain visionnaire qui exprime ses idées sur les faits de la
culture et de la civilisation contemporaines, comme il le fait d’ailleurs dans
tous ses romans, sans peur ni contrainte, à la manière de Satan. Si, dans Les
premiers venus, Dieu, qui refuse le pardon à Adam et à Eve, est le créateur
qui, par orgueil, décline sa responsabilité devant ses créatures, Satan,
toujours prêt à leur donner des conseils, représente le vrai principe créateur.
Il représente le Savoir suprême qui se met au service de l’humanité9.
Les péritextes du roman, dans leur ensemble, mettent en évidence la
tâche principale du discours romanesque guimardien, qui est la création du
monde littéraire par l’écrivain, son créateur suprême.
3. Le début et la fin du roman
L’incipit
Le roman débute et finit avec deux textes à valeur spéculaire, qui se
répondent l’un l’autre comme les épigraphes et le post-scriptum. Le premier
texte annonce le prétexte du roman, le deuxième est une Postface, dont le
rôle est de résumer les intentions du livre.
Le premier texte, intitulé « Résumé des épisodes précédents », présente
brièvement toutes les étapes de la Genèse avant l’épisode du « fruit
défendu », prétexte de la fiction guimardienne. Le texte a la forme d’une
liste de phrases nominales, comme, par exemple : « Modelage d’un Homme
en terre glaise et son animation par la méthode du bouche-à-bouche. ». La
dernière phrase nominale – « Episode dit du « fruit défendu » » – est ensuite
développée dans la fiction qui se déroule dans les deux parties du livre. Le
principe constitutif de cette liste est toujours l’emploi de l’ironie. Un simple
mot, adroitement utilisé, reflète la dualité et de la duplicité de cette figure,
validant les intentions cachées de l’écrivain. Par exemple, dans la première
phrase citée, résumant la création de l’Homme par Dieu à la méthode « du
bouche-à-bouche », l’écrivain exprime la distance qu’il prend par rapport
aux faits de la Bible et implicitement par rapport à la foi. De même, dans la
9 De cette manière, on peut comprendre l’humanisme guimardien, qui, selon la leçon
d’André Gide, met son écriture au service de l’Homme.
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dernière phrase du texte « Episode dit du « fruit défendu » », le déterminant
« dit », attribué au péché originel, fait disparaître l’idée de culpabilité
foncière du geste d’Eve. Guimard laisse ainsi transparaître l’idée que la
théorie du « fruit défendu » est une invention du dogmatisme chrétien, car
connaître est le droit légitime de l’homme. Dans tous ses livres, l’écrivain
démontre que la soif de connaître, loin d’être un péché, est ce qui fait
avancer l’humanité. C’est dans ce sens que l’on peut aussi comprendre la «
mémoire du futur » de Satan dans le post-scriptum.
La liste des phrases nominales du premier texte spéculaire est introduite
par une ample phrase verbale qui annonce et caractérise ce qui va suivre,
tout en rappelant les titres des chapitres des romans ou des contes
philosophiques du XVIIIe siècle10 : « Où l’on voit que la création du monde
à partir du Chaos n’est pas une mince affaire ». Le verbe placé au début
annonce ce dont on doit prendre conscience. Il s’agit de l’acte créateur
initiatique envisagé par un clin d’œil ironique, mais pas méchant. En
utilisant l’antiphrase « la création du monde [...] n’est pas une mince
affaire », l’écrivain dévalorise l’acte divin. L’expression « mince affaire »
installe l’acte créateur suprême dans « les choses de la vie ». 11 Guimard
présente ainsi l’acte de la création du monde comme un projet faisable, ce
qui nous permet l’extrapolation de ce projet faisable à l’écriture, vu la
signification du post-scriptum. Cette interprétation est soutenue aussi par le
texte même du roman qui est une création du monde par l’écriture. On sait
que l’ironie est l’art de persuader et qu’elle est utilisée dans le but de
dévaloriser quelque chose par des termes valorisants. Guimard fait le
contraire : il utilise des termes dévalorisants pour valoriser. Il dévalorise le
mythe biblique, pour valoriser la création du monde par l’écriture.
La Postface
La Postface, ayant un sous-titre intitulé « Extraits du Livre de la Genèse »,
va également dans le sens de cette interprétation. Elle se présente comme un
commentaire de texte, construit selon les exigences de la recherche
scientifique. Son objectif est de révéler les erreurs du Créateur Suprême
dans la création du monde. Le texte commence par la citation de deux
versets du Déluge (Genèse, chap. IX, verset 7). Le commentaire est focalisé
sur la dernière phrase du passage : « Soyez féconds et prolifiques ; pullulez
sur la terre et multipliez-vous sur elle », que Dieu prononce en s’adressant à
Noé et à ses fils. L’écrivain remarque que Dieu avait employé la même
formule « soyez féconds et prolifiques, remplissez la terre » (Genèse, chap.
10 Voir, par exemple, le titre d’un chapitre de Candide de Voltaire : « Comment Candide
rencontra son ancien maître de philosophie, le docteur Panglosse, et ce qui en advin t».
11 Par « les choses de la vie », syntagme utilisé comme titre de l’un de ses romans (Les
choses de la vie, Paris, Denoël, 1967), Paul Guimard comprend les faits de la vie
quotidienne qui passent inaperçus, mais qui constituent notre vrai bonheur.
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I), « un millénaire plus tôt, au matin de la Création » (Guimard 1997, 148).
Selon son commentaire, la reprise de la phrase traduit l’erreur de Dieu de
persister dans ses intentions malgré l’échec de sa première version. En
analysant l’échec de Dieu, Guimard essaie en réalité de trouver la solution
pour surmonter les échecs dans la création littéraire. Dans les termes de la
création littéraire, la reprise de la même histoire signifie la tentation de la
réécriture. En analyste du travail du Créateur Suprême, Guimard attribue
l’échec de la première version de la création à l’incapacité de Dieu
d’apercevoir la mauvaise construction de la configuration terrestre. Il n’a
prêté attention qu’à « la dégénérescence de l’humanité » :
Cette redite volontaire montre assez que le Créateur s’en tenait à son idée
initiale, malgré l’échec de la première version et qu’il n’avait pas
constaté de malfaçon du globe terrestre – il pouvait le pulvériser d’un
claquement de doigts !- mais la dégénérescence de l’humanité qui le
peuplait (Guimard 1997, 148).
L’erreur de Dieu réside dans le fait qu’il ne cherche pas à connaître ses
créatures, le produit de sa création, parce qu’il est trop occupé par l’idée de
créer. Il ne connaît pas l’homme, il néglige le rapport indissoluble entre la
vie de celui-ci et le monde, et ne prête attention qu’à la fonction humaine de
peupler la terre. Guimard met en évidence cette idée par une ironie verbale
qui raille le texte même de la Bible concernant le devoir de Noé et de ses fils
de peupler la terre :
Sem, Cham et Japhet, les trois fils qui sortirent de l’arche, avaient
expérimenté depuis belle lurette les agréments des exercices conduisant à
la pullulation. Ils s’employèrent joyeusement à obéir aux consignes
célestes. Noé lui-même, pourtant âgé de six cents ans à l’époque des
faits, disposait encore de trois cent cinquante ans pour collaborer en
personne au repeuplement avec sa femme et les femmes de ses fils, et
cela, malgré un penchant pour la boisson qui le plongeait parfois dans de
longs sommeils dont il s’éveillait fringant lorsqu’il avait cuvé son vin,
comme dit la Genèse (chap. IX, verset 24) (Guimard 1997, 148).
Guimard désire accentuer l’idée que l’orgueil produit par son pouvoir
absolu empêche Dieu de saisir l’imperfection de sa création, notamment
l’imperfection de l’homme et du monde dans lequel il est jeté. Ce qui
manque, par conséquent, au Créateur suprême est la conscience de son acte.
Guimard y voit l’erreur principale de l’acte créateur. Cette erreur est encore
plus grave si quelqu’un d’autre doit l’assumer et en subir les conséquences.
L’écrivain interprète dans cette perspective l’histoire de la Rédemption. Il
considère que « l’hypothèse ingénieuse du Rédempteur » qui « prend sur lui
la punition de l’espèce grâce à une mort lente et cruelle » est la forme sous
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laquelle Dieu décline sa responsabilité envers ses créatures par un acte de
vengeance contre l’insoumission à ses consignes. Implicitement Guimard
laisse comprendre que le fils inventé dans ce but assume en réalité les
erreurs du Père. Par l’interprétation de son commentaire on peut comprendre
que, dans sa conception, la tâche principale de tout créateur est la haute
conscience de son acte. La haute conscience du métier rend l’écrivain
responsable de son acte scriptural et éveille en lui « la mémoire du futur »,
c’est-à-dire la lucidité nécessaire pour railler les vices de notre société
contemporaine et offrir à l’avenir des solutions pour s’en sortir. Le
problème central que Guimard pose d’ailleurs dans ses livres est l’état de la
civilisation et de la culture, suite à la perte de la sensibilité et de la faculté
d’aimer. Dans ce contexte, l’acte littéraire est l’engagement d’un écrivain
responsable de sa création, dont la mission est de guider l’être humain à
dépasser les imperfections de sa vie et de sa condition. Guimard nourrit
cette mission de sa philosophie fondée sur le concept d’ironie du sort.
4. L’ironie du sort
L’ironie du sort est généralement définie comme le contraste entre ce qu’on
espérait et la réalité. Dans cet esprit, Guimard voit dans la réalité
quotidienne, qui est la matière de ses livres, un contraste entre le
fonctionnement des « choses de la vie » et ce qui est ressenti par l’individu.
La loi qui agit dans son univers est le hasard, l’imprévu. Dans son monde,
tout bascule entre certitude et incertitude. « Tout est prévu de ce qui est
prévisible. » (Guimard 1995, 16) dit Guimard dans L’ironie du sort.
Pourtant, tout s’avère imprévisible car tout est relatif 12 en fonction du
concours de circonstances. Le concours de circonstances est l’effet de
l’ironie qui s’insinue dans le sort des humains, mais qui donne aussi la
possibilité d’une décision : en profiter ou ne pas en profiter. En profiter est,
selon Guimard, la forme que prend la dignité humaine face à l’ironie du
sort. L’écrivain laisse surgir cette idée dans tous ses écrits, mais elle est
explicitement présentée dans l’incipit du roman Les premiers venus.
Adam et Eve se voient chassés de l’Eden sans trouver d’explication à la
colère du Tout Puissant, suite à leur geste de s’attaquer au « fruit défendu ».
12 Cette idée est sans doute inspirée à l’écrivain par la théorie de la relativité d’Albert
Einstein. D’ailleurs la quatrième partie de L’Ironie du sort a comme épigraphe cette citation
du célèbre physicien : « Je ne veux pas croire que Dieu joue aux billes avec l’Univers »
(Guimard 1961, 113).
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L’Homme et la Femme que nous appellerons Adam et Eve, leurs noms
originels, ne comprirent rien à l’ouragan que suscita leur fredaine. Ils
s’attendaient à un froncement de sourcils de l’ombrageux Créateur ou,
pire, à des remontrances dans le style pompeux régissant leurs rapports
avec le Très-Haut, mais ils restèrent stupides devant le furieux ramdam
qui suivit leur enfantillage (Guimard 1997, 15).
Pour Adam et Eve la relation avec Dieu ressemblait à la liaison existante
entre le père et ses enfants. L’« enfantillage » qu’ils ont commis n’était pour
eux que la satisfaction des caprices devant une interdiction parentale
immotivée, de leur point de vue. « Adam et Eve ne quittèrent donc pas
l’Eden, ils furent quittés par lui. » (Guimard 1997, 18), dit Guimard. Il s’agit
donc un concours de circonstances qui décide de leur vie. En aucun cas, ils
ne se révoltent pas contre leur Père. Seuls sur la terre, il ne leur reste que
deux issues : se laisser accabler par leur sort ou bien essayer de s’en sortir.
Ils choisissent d’agir tout en s’entre-aidant. Il est à remarquer que la solution
proposée par Guimard devant le destin n’est pas la révolte, mais la dignité
de l’acte. Agir, c’est sa leçon d’écrivain de la condition humaine, assumée
dans l’unique but de la communication entre les hommes par la voie de la
sensibilité et du cœur. Guimard met en évidence cette idée par une ironie
fine qui transforme le contraire de la perfection en réalité harmonieuse.
La terre sur laquelle sont plongés Adam et Eve devrait être le contraire de
la perfection de l’Eden. L’art scriptural guimardien prouve le contraire. En
attribuant à ses héros la perspective descriptive, Guimard met en parallèle la
perfection immuable de L’Eden avec la beauté mouvante et vivante de la
terre :
D’abord, ils ne virent pas la différence. Le fleuve puissant continuait à
travers la grande vallée fertile cernée de monts qui en limitait l’horizon.
Le soleil éclairait toujours la terre bien que sa lumière fût moins
uniforme, plus nuancée ainsi que la qualité de l’air parcouru de légers
courants. Ils virent apparaître dans le ciel des écharpes blanches,
paresseuses et changeantes. Adam et Eve n’avaient connu de la voûte
céleste que la lumière invariable d’un soleil immobile dispensant sur
l’Eden une température uniforme (Guimard 1997, 18).
La beauté de l’Eden ne connaît aucune variation de l’espace et du temps,
elle est uniforme, statique et inchangeable, privée de la dialectique des
contraires. Monotone, elle ne produit aucun effet sur l’âme. Dans l’Eden,
Adam et Eve n’ont jamais remarqué le ciel, comme il leur arrive depuis
qu’ils se trouvent sur la terre. Guimard recourt à un jeu d’adjectifs pour
réaliser la description du ciel de l’Eden : « Il n’y avait rien à voir, dit-il,
qu’une étendue calme et bleue, calme et bête » (Guimard 1997, 19). Les
adjectifs « bleue » et « bête », ayant des sens tout différents, plutôt opposés,
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deviennent synonymes grâce au même terme auquel ils sont associés,
l’adjectif « calme ». L’adjectif « bleue » reçoit ainsi les connotations de
l’adjectif « bête » : banal, sans originalité, conventionnel, ce qui est déjà
suggéré par la forme négative du verbe voir : « il n’y avait rien à voir ». La
phrase qui suit explique la raison de cet aspect conventionnel de l’Eden, du
dogmatisme religieux, tout en laissant transparaître la philosophie
antireligieuse guimardienne :
Un ordre immuable régissait le mouvement des astres, le comportement
des créatures, de toutes les créatures, l’Homme et la Femme en tête mais
aussi les oiseaux de l’air, les poissons de l’eau, toute bête de la terre et la
terre elle-même et l’herbe des champs (Guimard 1997, 19).
Paul Guimard trouve une manière moderne et poétique pour réécrire
l’éternel problème du destin implacable et de notre impuissance devant ses
lois. Recourant à un nouveau jeu de contrastes, propre à l’ironie, il oppose le
malheur du couple chassé de l’espace édénique au bonheur qu’il ressent
devant le spectacle vivant de la terre. L’effet produit par l’image de la terre
sur Adam et Eve est contraire à un désespoir causé par la perte de l’espace
d’origine. Avec la sensibilité propre aux femmes, Eve remarque : « Il fait
bon », et à Adam de répondre : « C’est sans doute le début du
changement ». Dans la description de l’incipit du roman, qui se termine par
ce bref échange de répliques, on peut reconnaître l’aspect de base de
l’esthétique guimardienne : l’invitation adressée à l’être humain à dépasser
sa condition, en accédant à la beauté et à la communication, par la voie de la
sensibilité. L’art, offrant cette opportunité à l’être humain, est, pour
Guimard, comme pour Malraux, un antidestin.
L’incipit du roman Les premiers venus laisse également voir la
philosophie de l’écrivain bâtie sur le concept d’ironie du sort. Le concours
de circonstances est un produit de l’ironie du sort et ne connaît aucune
explication. En vain la cherche-t-on, il ne s’agit que de simples suppositions
(Adam ne fait que supposer les raisons de la colère de Dieu). La philosophie
de Guimard est celle d’un écrivain, être sensible. Elle n’est pas à la
recherche du sens, qui est de toute façon inexistant, mais tente de trouver la
voie d’agir en dignité pour s’affirmer en tant qu’être humain, dans un
concours de circonstances. Il faut savoir dire, comme Adam devant la
décision implacable du Tout Puissant : « je refuse que nous Lui faisons
l’hommage du remords ».
La fin du roman offre une image poétique de cette philosophie, par le
rituel de la célébration du mariage dans la mort, suggérant la solution offerte
par Paul Guimard face aux limites de la condition humaine : la
communication sur la base affective.
Atteinte d’une maladie incurable et réconciliée avec son sort, Eve lègue à
Adam son dernier désir. Elle lui demande de couvrir son corps inanimé de
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fleurs et de le confier au fleuve, pour qu’il conserve d’elle une belle image.
Après la mort de son épouse, Adam accomplit ce devoir en se donnant luimême la mort, tout en affirmant la liberté de décider de son sort :
Adam fit ce qu’il avait promis, il porta le corps sans vie jusqu’au fleuve
et le couvrit d’iris et de jacinthes d’eau. Il avança jusqu’à ce que le
courant atteignît sa poitrine. Alors il accomplit l’acte de révolte qu’il
avait décidé, le choix qui rejetait la soumission au Déluge en refusant au
Créateur le pouvoir de lui imposer l’heure de sa destruction. Homme
libre, il se coucha dans le fleuve en étreignant sa femme. Il aspira
profondément l’onde qui noya ses pensées (Guimard 1997, 145).
Le suicide d’Adam révèle la position de Paul Guimard contre le fatalisme. Il
démontre que, par un geste de dignité humaine, il y a des solutions contre un
sort qui est décidé à l’avance. Adam se donne la mort pour faire passer sa
dignité d’homme et ses sentiments dans l’éternité. Il fait ainsi triompher sa
liberté et fait l’éloge du seul sentiment humain valable, selon Guimard, qui
rend possible la communication : l’amour. Le couple, couvert de fleurs,
glissant vers la mort dans une étreinte, exprime la confiance de l’écrivain
dans la vie de l’âme, seule chance d’avenir pour la civilisation.
5.
Conclusion
Dans Les premiers venus, la réécriture du mythe de la Genèse, avec
l’humour que lui confère la distanciation ironique, est une ébauche de l’art
de Paul Guimard. Comme on a pu le remarquer, l’ironie n’est pas chez lui
un simple fait de langage, mais une structure à substance philosophique,
ayant la fonction de figure fondatrice de son écriture.
Il ne s’agit pourtant pas, chez lui, d’une ignorance simulée, destinée à
faire découvrir à ses interlocuteurs leur propre ignorance, à travers des
interrogations naïves. Guimard partage le sort de tous les humains et
compatit avec eux, tout en essayant de leur révéler, par un détachement qui
crée la bonne disposition et l’humour, l’unique solution d’affirmer leur
dignité. Il ne parle pas en philosophe, mais en écrivain sensible, dont le but
est de rendre possible et évident ce qui est improbable et incertain. Il ne fait
cette démonstration ni sous l’influence du fatalisme ni sous celle du
déterminisme, mais en artiste de l’écriture romanesque.
Se trouver par hasard dans un concours de circonstances, comme se
trouvent les héros guimardiens, pourrait faire penser à la fatalité. Mais
Guimard propose justement d’intervenir dans « les choses de la vie » pour
dérégler le mécanisme de la fatalité. La solution qu’il suggère, d’une
manière poétique, c’est profiter de tout concours de circonstance. Sa
philosophie pourrait se résumer ainsi : la condition humaine est constituée
105
d’une série de circonstances qui, dans l’espace d’une hésitation, peuvent
marquer le destin ; si l’on accepte de tout subir, on devient le spectateur
passif de la déconstruction de sa personnalité, de la perte de son identité,
souvent jusqu’à la mort ; au contraire, si l’on profite, sans hésiter, des
circonstances, on devient capable de construire son identité et de décider de
son sort. Guimard place une bonne partie de ses héros dans la première
catégorie justement pour souligner par contraste l’importance de la
deuxième attitude proposée, pour laquelle il plaide dans ses romans. Adam
et Eve s’inscrivent dans cette dernière catégorie.
L’ironie est l’outil de base pour révéler cette philosophie, ayant, par sa
duplicité, la capacité de transformer les incertitudes de la condition humaine
en certitudes généralement valables.
Bibliographie
Gardes Tamine, Joëlle, Christine Marcandier et Vincent Vivès (éditeurs).
2007. Ironie entre dualité et duplicit. Paris: PUP.
Genette, Gérard, 1987. Seuils. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. coll. "Poétique".
Guimard, Paul, 1995 [1961]. L’ironie du sort. Paris. Denoël.
Guimard, Paul, 1967. Les choses de la vie. Paris. Denoël.
Guimard, Paul, 1997. Les premiers venus. Paris. Grasset.
Schoentjes, Pierre, 2001. Poétique de l'ironie. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. coll.
"Points/Essais-Inédits".
106
L’(in)certitude dans l’univers de croyance de
Robinson
Mihaela Mitu
University of Piteşti (Romania)
mihaelamitu@yahoo.com
Abstract
The discursive forms of the verb devoir contribute to the representation of
the set of beliefs shared by the actors involved in the plot of the novel
Vendredi ou les Limbes du Pacifique. Robinson’s reflexive movement goes
first from absolute certainty to quasi-certainty and uncertainty, and then the
other way round. Our article illustrates how the narrator’s and character’s
“subjacent” interventions are made visible in the fictional text and how,
through them, the author manages to transmit to the reader a pre-established
point of view, letting him at the same time into the reflexive meanders of the
protagonists’ thinking. These are several issues that we shall try to address
by means of a thorough analysis of the 102 occurrences of the verb devoir
whose values, bearing the sign of apodictic neccessity (Kronning 1994), are
revealed only when we take into account the situational co(n)text.
Keywords: Epistemic, evidential, universe of beliefs, (un)certainty, point of
view.
1.
Introduction
Le récit comme mode de représentation verbale de l’histoire est le résultat
d’un acte de communication par lequel le narrateur, le protagoniste et
indirectement l’auteur expriment leurs intentions. L’architecture interne
d’un texte dévoile comment le mécanisme de prise en charge énonciative
contribue à l’établissement de la cohérence pragmatique du texte
explicitant : (a) les diverses évaluations (jugements, opinions, sentiments)
susceptibles d’être formulées à l’égard de l’un ou de l’autre aspect du
contenu thématique et (b) les sources même de ces évaluations; quelles sont
les instances qui les assument.
Notre démarche ayant comme assise théorique les recherches de Dendale
(1994), Kronning (1994, 2001) et Rabatel (1998) s’attachera à illustrer
comment se fait sentir dans ce texte fictionnel l’intervention « sousjacente » du narrateur, quels sont les moyens linguistiques dont dispose
107
celui-ci, et par delà son créateur, pour y impliquer le lecteur et lui faire
accepter un point de vue préétabli, comment sont livrés « en direct » au
lecteur par l’intermédiaire des différents types de discours (discours
indirect, discours indirect libre, etc.) les sentiments, les évaluations, les
transformations du protagoniste.
Autant de questions auxquelles nous essayerons de répondre par une
analyse approfondie de quelques-unes des 102 occurrences du verbe devoir
puisées dans le roman de Michel Tournier Vendredi ou les Limbes du
Pacifique (désormais VLP) dont les valeurs pragmatico-interprétatives ne se
dévoilent qu’à la prise en considération du co(n)texte linguistique et
situationnel.
2.
Aperçu théorique
Le verbe devoir est polysémique1. Ses valeurs modales et évidentielles ainsi
que les différentes interprétations sémantico-discursives de ses formes
linguistiques reposent tant sur des contraintes syntaxiques que sur le
sémantisme des éléments co-présents sur la chaîne syntagmatique. Les
interprétations modales définissent les valeurs de devoir en termes de
jugements sur la fiabilité de l’information ou l’attitude du locuteur à l’égard
de ce qu’il dit.
Entre le déontique et l’épistémique / ou l’évidentialité, en passant par
l’aléthique, les réalisations syntaxiques et discursives de cet auxi-verbe
modal peuvent exprimer l’obligation, la plausibilité, la probabilité, la
vraisemblance, la quasi-certitude, la certitude. Les trois valeurs
fondamentales de devoir participent d’une seule et même nécessité,
nécessité «apodictique». Kronning (1994, 28) définit la nécessité
apodictique en termes d’inférence et de quantification mondaine.
«L’apodicticité est: (a) le produit d’une composition inférentielle; (b) qui
dénote l’universalité mondaine (dans tous les mondes possibles) dans un
certain univers modal UM».
Les propriétés syntaxiques susceptibles d’orienter l’interprétation
aléthique de devoir sont la compatibilité de ce verbe avec l’interrogation
partielle et sa compatibilité avec les subordonnées introduites par puisque.
Par son caractère véridicible devoir aléthique peut apparaître dans ces
constructions tandis que devoir épistémique y est impossible (Kronning
2001,73-74).
Devoir épistémique est décrit en termes de jugement sur la fiabilité de
l’information ou l’attitude du locuteur vis-à-vis de ce qu’il dit/pense. Les
valeurs modales évidentielles sont en corrélation étroite l’une avec l’autre.
1
Voir en ce sens la revue Langue française, no. 102, 1994.
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Nous suivons l’hypothèse soutenue par Dendale (1994, 24-38) selon
laquelle la valeur évidentielle de devoir est de signaler que le locuteur a eu
recours à une opération complexe de création d’information dans laquelle
l’inférence joue un rôle important sans cependant être la seule opération à
avoir été effectuée. Quelles sont les étapes mentales de l’opération de
création d’information qui déterminent l’utilisation de devoir épistémique?
À reprendre les réflexions de Dendale, ces étapes en nombre de trois
consistent: (a) à gérer ou à activer une série de prémisses (majeures,
mineures) en fonction de la situation extralinguistique donnée ; (b) à inférer
de ces prémisses une ou plusieurs conclusions virtuelles; (c) à évaluer ces
conclusions. Le raisonnement qui mène de la profération de la prémisse
jusqu’à la conclusion peut être de type déductif, quand il va des
conséquences à la cause, ou abductif, quand il va des causes à la
conséquence.
Présentation de la démarche : (a) premier niveau d’analyse : présentation
des données statistiques sur les formes fléchies du verbe devoir et le taux
d’occurrences reparti par chapitres; (b) représentations syntaxiques et mise
en évidence des contraintes discursives susceptibles d’orienter l’analyse des
valeurs et effets de sens de cet auxi-verbe modal. Mise en relation des
occurrences du verbe devoir avec les autres marques de la double
focalisation narrative.
3.
Présentation des données statistiques en relation avec l’organisation
formelle de la structure narrative du roman
Tournier (1977, 128) souligne dans ses écrits autobiographiques la structure
narrativo-musicale de ses romans, composés d’habitude selon une
structuration binaire où les deux parties sont séparées par une crise.
L’écrivain fait souvent référence à l’admirable structuration de l’Art de la
fugue qu’il considère: «l’œuvre musicale…la plus riche, la plus rigoureuse,
la plus touchante qui fût jamais conçue de tête humaine». Sur l’ensemble
des douze chapitres qui composent le roman faisant l’objet de nos analyses,
cette crise est située au chapitre VIII. Au plan figuratif cette étape est
marquée par la destruction des installations construites par Robinson sur
l’île et correspond à l’instant crucial qui annonce la métamorphose du
protagoniste. La destruction agit comme un miroir qui réfléchit et inverse
les séquences, balisant le parcours de Robinson. La structure binaire sera
schématisée dans notre étude de la manière suivante: a →b→c /destruction/
c’→b’→a’. En fonction de la répartition des occurrences flexionnelles du
verbe devoir ainsi que les moments situés à l’incipit et dans les chapitres I,
IV, VIII, X.
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4.
Devoir – effets de sens et focalisations narratives
4.1 Points d’ancrage de l’(in)certitude
Espace re-présentatif2 d’un roman, l’incipit rend à échelle réduite la manière
dont seront livrées au lecteur les réflexions du héros et du narrateur ainsi
que la relation qui s’instaure entre les instances en jeu. Cette partie, formée
par deux paragraphes, comprend un inventaire assez riches de locutions et
marques verbales modales.
(1) Robinson fit un effort pour s’asseoir et éprouva aussitôt une douleur
fulgurante à l’épaule gauche. La grève était jonchée de poissons
éventrés, de crustacés fracturés et de touffes de varech brunâtre, tel
qu’il n’en existe qu’à une certaine profondeur. Au nord et à l’est,
l’horizon s’ouvrait librement vers le large, mais à l’ouest il était barré
par une falaise rocheuse qui s’avançait dans la mer et semblait s’y
prolonger par une chaîne de récifs (…).
Lorsque la tempête s’était levée, la galiote du capitaine Van Deyssel devait
se trouver – non pas au nord comme il l’avait cru - mais au nord-est de
l’archipel Juan Fernández. Dès lors, le navire fuyant sous le vent, avait dû
être chassé sur les atterrages de l’île Mas a Tierra, au lieu de
dériver librement dans le vide marin (…). Telle était du moins l’hypothèse
la moins défavorable à Robinson (VLP,12).
Dès la première page du roman Vendredi ou les Limbes du Pacifique le
narrateur focalise avec son héros; son discours emprunte dans ce cas la
vision et les caractéristiques rhétoriques de son protagoniste. Du point de
vue des structures énonciatives et lexicales, on remarque le même genre de
vocabulaire, une syntaxe où abondent les concessives (mais, quoi qu’il en
soit), les temporelles (dès lors), des phrases où les adverbes et les verbes
modalisateurs (peut-être, devoir, convenir, etc.) notent l’attitude axiologique
de Robinson et marquent les articulations du raisonnement de ce
protagoniste. L’on constate l’utilisation des formes fléchies du verbe devoir
avec leurs valeurs épistémiques.
Dans l’exemple de sous (1), le changement de registre énonciatif est
marqué par des moyens lexico-sémantiques et grammaticaux: l’alternance
des temps verbaux passé simple/imparfait, un verbe de perception éprouva
ouvrent la voie à la description qui suit où le point de vue représenté
Cf. Basilio (2009, 73) : « l’incipit n’est pas seulement initial mais également initiatique,
faisant office d’introduction au livre qu’il inaugure, et ce à trois titres au moins: il a pour
charge de faire les honneurs du lieu, en introduisant l’hôte dans la demeure, demeure que,
de surcroît, tout en la représentant à ses yeux, il se doit de lui présenter », in « Incipit
romanesque et coup de foudre amoureux ».
2
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(Rabatel 2001, 153) construit la perspective du locuteur focalisateur, dans
notre cas, du héros Robinson. Le fragment est divisé en trois parties dont la
matérialité de référenciation linguistique présente, en discours indirect libre,
les évaluations épistémiques de la source focalisatrice. Ces évaluations
portent : (a) sur la situation où le héros se trouve; (b) sur la situation qui
aurait déterminé le naufrage; (c) sur ce qu’il devra/devrait faire. Quel est le
degré d’assurance avec lequel le locuteur-protagoniste communique
l’information? Dans la première partie du fragment, les constatations de
nature géographiques avec des mentions référentielles à valeur absolue au
nord et à l’est, à l’ouest, ou relative à sa position d’énonciation, cette île,
ainsi que les déductions empruntées à ses connaissances de marin « … de
poissons éventrés (…), tel qu’il n’en existe qu’à une certaine profondeur »,
amènent le héros à envisager sa situation avec un sentiment de détresse.
La deuxième partie du fragment reste sous le signe d’un raisonnement
abductif, de type estimatif, par lequel le protagoniste prend en considération
et évalue plusieurs aspects des circonstances qui ont mené vers le naufrage.
D’abord la mise en doute des calculs du capitaine, ensuite l’assertion de son
propre point de vue supposé fiable avec l’expression d’une conclusion
partielle. C’est une estimation du type « si la galiote devait se trouver non
pas au nord…/ mais au nord-est….alors il [le navire] avait dû être
chassé.... ». Le mouvement interprétatif est activé et rendu saillant au niveau
linguistique par les formes verbales devait se trouver…avait dû être chassé.
La forme de l’imparfait du verbe modal devait suivie par l’infinitif se
trouver exprime le mouvement cognitif de la prise en compte d’une source
énonciatrice différente, en l’occurrence l’énonciateur1, séquence
polyphonique, par laquelle sont reprises et niées les paroles du capitaine
Van Deyssel. La probabilité affirmée par le capitaine, «la Virginie se
trouve…» est ainsi niée. En vertu de l’opinion fondée sur son expérience de
marin, par abduction, le héros infère la plausibilité d’une hypothèse basée
sur le constat antérieur, c'est-à-dire la supposition de la méprise du
capitaine. Mais l’hypothèse sur laquelle est construite l’inférence peut
s’avérer fausse et alors la conclusion énoncée à la suite du raisonnement
abductif peut être contestée3 . La voie à l’expression d’un doute est ainsi
ouverte:
(2) Mais il était également possible que le capitaine n’eût commis aucune
erreur d’estime… (VLP, 12).
Le calcul interprétatif n’est pas fini.
La troisième partie du fragment analysé débute par une subordonnée
concessive régie par l’imparfait du verbe convenir :
3
L’abduction infère la plausibilité d’une hypothèse à partir d’un constat supposé vrai.
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(3) Quoi qu’il en soit, il convenait de se mettre à la recherche des éventuels
rescapés du naufrage et des habitants de cette terre, si du moins elle
était habitée (VLP, 12).
Par manque de preuves suffisantes, Robinson décide de vivre dans
l’immédiateté. Quelle est, dans l’exemple de sous (3), l’identité du sujet
énonciateur: s’agit-il du narrateur, du héros ou voire des deux? Par son
sémantisme (être forcé de convenir, convenir des faits), le verbe implique
une sorte de connivence entre le narrateur et le personnage. Le contenu de
l’énoncé laisse sous-entendre que la source énonciative serait le héros: la
présence du déictique spatial, le narrateur qui sait autant que son personnage
« si du moins elle [l’île] était habitée ». Mais il y a là, à la fois, le narrateur
annonçant comme une voix en écho (pour le lecteur ?) le programme
narratif du héros qui, dans le paragraphe suivant, se mettra à l’exploration
de l’île. Nous considérons que ce fragment clôt l’incipit du roman.
Entre la probabilité niée et la plausibilité assumée puis mise en doute, la
vraisemblance fait place à l’incertitude. Robinson aura besoin de preuves
supplémentaires pour estimer sa situation de naufragé. Ainsi procède-t-il à
l’exploration de l’île.
Par deux fois, en discours direct d’abord et en discours indirect libre
ensuite, le héros arrive à la triste constatation:
(4) Puisque ce n’est pas Mas a Tierra, dit-il simplement, c’est l’île de la
Désolation. (…) Puisque cette terre n’était pas l’île Mas a Tierra, il
devait s’agir d’un îlot que les cartes ne mentionnaient pas, situé
quelque part entre la grande île et la côte chilienne. A l’ouest l’archipel
Juan Fernandez, à l’est le continent sud-américain se trouvaient à des
distances impossibles à déterminer, mais excédant à coup sûr les
possibilités d’un homme seul (...). En outre, l’îlot devait se trouver hors
de la route régulière des navires, puisqu’il était totalement inconnu
(VLP,14).
Le contenu d’une subordonnée en puisque est présenté comme vrai
préalablement à l’énonciation4. Vu l’enchaînement à la séquence puisque…
la lecture de devoir ne peut être qu’aléthique. Dans le fragment de sous (4),
les deux occurrences du verbe modal à l’imparfait acquièrent une valeur de
futur aléthique du passé dit « objectif », instaurent un point de vue
rétrospectif, « instance de validation, située au moment de l’énonciation, qui
vérifie la réalisation, antérieurement à ce moment, du procès modalisé et
Cf. Kronning (2001,76) : « Faisant toujours l’objet d’un acte de véridiction, le produit
inférentiel que dénote DEVOIR aléthique doit préexister à cet acte qui s’accomplit à travers
l’énonciation et, à plus forte raison, les prémisses dont procède ce produit inférentiel ne
peuvent être convoquées in praesentia, au moment de l’énonciation, mais doivent être
convoquées avant l’acte d’énonciation ».
4
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l’inscrit dans tous les mondes possibles de l’univers modal convoqué par
devoir » (Kronning 2001,78). Les estimations de Robinson d’ordre inductifdéductif, se présentant sous la forme de structures syntaxiques complexes
conséquence-cause/cause-conséquence, confirment sa triste situation de seul
rescapé du naufrage, arrivé sur un îlot totalement inconnu. Comme elle est
tributaire de l’irréversibilité ontologique du temps et « fonctionne dans un
univers axiomatique » (Kronning 2001, 72), la nécessité exprimée par
devoir est associée à une « fatalité ».
Cependant si le discours mimétique du narrateur va très loin, il ne se
confond pourtant pas avec celui de son héros. La mise à distance entre les
deux discours est réalisée par plusieurs procédés : devoir, rattaché dans la
catégorie de l’aléthique sous la forme d’un imparfait compris comme futur
du passé objectif, inévitable pour Robinson, est repris par le narrateur et
acquiert dans son commentaire une valeur de prédestination, de «fatalitéprogrammatico-narrative ». Au niveau textuel cette forme de devoir se
présente comme un commentaire évaluatif explicite:
(5) Cependant que Robinson faisait ce triste raisonnement, (…), il avait
subi un premier changement. Il était plus grave (…) d’avoir pleinement
reconnu et mesuré cette solitude qui allait être son destin pour
longtemps peut-être (VLP, p.14).
(6) Pour la première fois, la peur de perdre l’esprit l’avait effleuré de son
aile. Elle ne devait plus le quitter (VLP, 18).
(7) Il ne devait comprendre que plus tard la portée de cette expérience de la
nudité qu’il faisait pour la première fois… (VLP, 24).
Pour sa part, le narrateur, jouissant de sa fonction testimoniale, vient
confirmer mais aussi commenter et reprendre, comme dans un discours
dialogal, cette triste fatalité constatée mais non entièrement assumée encore
par notre héros « cette solitude… allait être son destin pour longtemps peutêtre ». Utilisé dans ce cadre narratif, dans les exemples de sous (6) et (7),
devoir exprime la modalité jointe à la temporalité. Le futur aléthique du
passé dit «subjectif» exprime le point de vue narratif, prospectif, à partir du
passé. Le contenu présuppositionnel transmis par le numéral d’ordination
ainsi que par les formants négatifs ne…plus et restrictifs ne… que dévoilent
au lecteur le parcours futur du protagoniste, anticipent sur le cheminement
du héros, orientent la lecture.
Entre la nécessité factuelle de sauver les biens existant sur la Virginie (le
navire), qui s’impose presque comme une obligation et l’éventualité
hypothétique de son séjour à long terme sur l’île, Robinson hésite encore et
choisit l’attente:
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(8) Robinson pensait aux armes et aux provisions (…) qu’il devrait bien
sauver avant qu’une nouvelle tempête ne balayât définitivement
l’épave. Si son séjour sur l’île devait se prolonger, sa survie dépendrait
(VLP, 16).
Pour lutter contre la fatale certitude de la solitude, il reste au protagoniste un
seul espoir, à savoir l’attente du salut. Le salut, qui ne se laisserait pas trop
longtemps attendre dans l’imaginaire de Robinson, devrait venir de quelque
navire arrivé sur la côte. Au tréfonds de son âme, Robinson gardait encore la
faible certitude d’être sauvé. Ainsi ajournait-il le moment de procéder à
l’installation sur son île. Cette situation se transforme au plan thématiconarratif en une attente maladive. Ayant perdu les repères temporels, le héros
frise la folie, ses attaches à l’écoulement du temps s’affaiblissent et ont pour
conséquence la perte de l’appréhension de l’espace. Sous le coup de
l’imagination, la réalité environnante se transforme. Au niveau descriptif,
cette transformation est signalée par la graduation attentive des mouvements
perceptifs:
(9) (a) il oublia d’abord qu’il n’avait à ses pieds qu’une masse liquide…;
(b) Il vit en elle une surface dure et élastique… ;
(c) puis, allant plus loin, il se figura qu’il s’agissait du dos de quelque
animal fabuleux dont la tête devait se trouver de l’autre côté de
l’horizon ;
(d) Enfin, il lui parut tout à coup que l’île n’était que la paupière et le
sourcil d’un œil immense… (VLP, 18).
Devoir évidentiel apparaît ici à la suite d’un processus de raisonnement basé
sur les données de l’imagination. De la quasi-certitude à la probabilité
jusqu’à l’évidentialité il n’y a qu’un pas presque franchi: « il lui parut tout à
coup que… ». L’évidence trompeuse mène à une évaluation de la
conclusion erronée elle-aussi. En proie à des hallucinations, le héros met le
feu d’avertissement au grand cèdre qui se trouvait sur la colline de l’île, le
faisant ainsi brûler vainement :
(10) Ainsi ce signal qui devait balayer l’océan n’avait réussi à attirer que
lui-même, lui-seul, suprême dérision! (VLP, 34)
Dans un dernier effort de s’arracher à ses rêveries «brumeuses», Robinson
décide de reprendre en mains son destin. Entre l’incertitude du sauvetage et
la certitude de perdre ses esprits, Robinson fait appel aux «armes» avec
lesquelles l’avait muni la société: dompter l’espace et les animaux, maîtriser
le temps et l’île, construire, mesurer, accumuler. Au plan narratif, cette
période désignée par le syntagme «l’île administrée» (Tournier 1989)
s’étend entre les chapitres trois et huit. Les points d’ancrage de «la
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certitude» sont la construction d’une maison, la maîtrise du temps, le désir
de devenir le maître absolu administratif et spirituel de cet espace et de ses
«habitants». Le parcours du protagoniste est annoncé, préfiguré ou
sanctionné par le narrateur.
4.2 Sous l’empreinte du devoir comme marque d’obligation
(11) Mais Robinson ne devait recouvrer pleinement son humanité qu’en se
donnant un abri qui soit autre chose que le fond d’une grotte… (VLP,
54).
Dans l’exemple de sous (11), le sémantisme du verbe modalisé recouvrer
(récupérer ce qui était perdu) et l’adverbe pleinement influent sur
l’interprétation de la valeur modale. Devoir exprime dans cet emploi une
«capacité logiquement ou naturellement prévisible que l’on prête au sujet».
L’emploi aléthique du verbe est analysable en termes de «nécessité
analytique argumentative». Il s’agit d’une nécessité discursivo-textuelle
(Tuţescu 2005, 98), construite par l’énonciateur-narrateur à des fins
argumentativo-discursives. L’occurrence de devoir affectant le sujet
protagoniste est glossable dans ce cas par: «être en état de». Le discours
dialogique entre les instances en jeu continue et, pour reprendre à M.
Tournier une métaphore souvent utilisée5, on pourrait dire que le narrateur
prépare l’ourdissage et le protagoniste tisse la trame, ou plutôt réalise le
programme. Pour accomplir le but annoncé, « recouvrer son humanité », le
protagoniste se soumet à une obligation d’ordre moral et une contrainte
d’ordre utilitaire:
(12) Ayant désormais pour compagnon le plus domestique6 des animaux, il
se devait de se construire une maison (VLP, 54).
Cette fois-ci, la forme réflexive pronominale du verbe modal exprime «ce
que l’on se croit tenu d’accomplir en vertu de la morale» (TLFi). La valeur
déontique fait écho à la nécessité analytique argumentative. Dire □P7, c’est
dire que P est vrai dans tous les mondes possibles. Alors Robinson se
soumet à cette loi et commence à construire une maison. Mais bientôt cet
abri, cette villa «massive par ses murs», qui aurait dû attester son humanité,
devient une «sorte de musée de l’humain», d’une «inutilité pratique» qui ne
faisait qu’attester «les contradictions de sa propre situation». La pointe
d’ironie qui surcharge le discours narratorial attire l’attention du lecteur, lui
fait pressentir la métamorphose qui commence à affecter le protagoniste.
Parfois, par un tour de parole ironique, le narrateur sanctionne le « bien
5
La construction du roman Les Météores est, en grande partie basée sur cette métaphore.
Souligné par l’auteur.
7
Le symbole □P se lit: «il est nécessaire que P», où P signifie «phrase».
6
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fondé » du raisonnement de son héros et, par son commentaire, il attire
l’attention du lecteur sur la présomption d’un esprit trop confiant dans ses
pouvoirs absolus de Législateur (chapitre IV). Les quelques occurrences du
verbe devoir qui apparaissent au présent de l’indicatif dans le IVe chapitre
du roman et qui s’inscrivent sous la dépendance de la modalité déontique
sont à expliquer en relation avec le contenu thématique de cette partie du
roman.
4.3 L’éternel retour aux sources ancestrales
En dépit de l’échafaudage «artificiel et extérieur» qu’il construit, Robinson
ressent des doutes. Cet échafaudage chancelant est marqué tantôt par le
protagoniste en discours direct (notes du log-book), tantôt par le narrateur
en vertu de sa tâche de régie :
(13) Mais aurai-je la force de mener à bien cette tâche formidable… ? […]
tout mon édifice cérébral chancelle (VLP, 57).
La confirmation de la faible certitude qui se fraie chemin dans l’univers du
protagoniste ne se laisse pas attendre. Le narrateur vient confirmer:
(14) Ainsi, pour Robinson, l’organisation frénétique de l’île allait de pair
avec le libre et d’abord timide épanouissement de tendances à demi
inconscientes. […] Mais cela, Robinson ne le reconnaissait pas encore
pleinement (VLP, 69).
L’arrivée de Vendredi sur l’île et l’explosion qui détruit les constructions
dressées par le héros marquent le renversement des valeurs en jeu. Les
rapports avec Vendredi changent; à bien observer son compagnon,
Robinson est amené à mettre en débat le bien fondé du rôle qu’il avait
attribué à Vendredi :
(15) Et si en cet instant précis il découvre par hasard la beauté anatomique
stupéfiante de l’œil de Vendredi, ne doit-il pas honnêtement se
demander si l’Araucan n’est pas tout entier une addition de choses
également admirables qu’il n’ignore que par aveuglement? (VLP,
155).
La question négative modalisée par devoir au présent de l’indicatif exprime
l’obligation naturellement prévisible dont l’évidence ne se laissera pas
attendre. Et notre héros ne tardera pas à reconnaître qu’ «il devait bien
s’avouer que Vendredi avait une personnalité» qui le conduira vers la
transformation en «Robinson solaire», fils de l’astre tutélaire, être nouveau
116
vivant en étroite communion avec l’île qu’il avait adoptée et baptisée
Speranza.
Si l’on prend en considération la structuration narrativo-musicale du
roman (voir supra.), on peut interpréter le chapitre X selon le concept de
stretto qui, dans l’art de la Fugue, précède la conclusion et resserre les
motifs du sujet8. Cette fois-ci, par ses réflexions inscrites dans le log-book,
Robinson entre en dialogue avec l’instance agissant dans le paratexte
auctorial. Il déchiffre, évalue et se pose des questions sur la réalisation du
programme narratif inscrit symboliquement dans ce préambule au roman
sous la forme de prédictions « lues » par le capitaine Van Deyssel dans les
cartes du Tarot. Dans la «forêt d’allégories» exposées par le capitaine,
Robinson «tâtonne à la recherche» de soi-même. Il se découvre «chevalier
solaire», se rend compte de l’écoulement inversé du temps qui l’a fait
rajeunir, atteste ses relations métamorphosées avec l’espace:
(16) Cette autre Speranza, j’y suis transporté désormais, […] car il me
semble-non, j’ai la certitude-que je les découvre [Vendredi et l’île] à
chaque instant pour la première fois (VLP, 189).
Ce chapitre rédigé à la première personne du singulier abonde en questions
délibératives, en questions appel de confirmation :
(17) Et cet être sorti des eaux ne devait-il pas se transformer en archer
tirant des flèches vers le soleil ?» (VLP, 195).
Et son cheminement passe de la quasi-certitude vers la certitude d’avoir
parcouru les grandes étapes de sa transformation sauf une dont le
déchiffrement incombe au lecteur qui devra avoir la patience de finir la
lecture :
(18) Ces paroles [du capitaine] auraient dû s’imprimer en lettres de feu
dans ma mémoire. Hélas, il ne m’en revient que des bribes confuses
(VLP, 195).
Clin d’œil explicite actorial et implicite auctorial par lequel la coopération
du lecteur est requise.
Robinson, le protagoniste principal du roman de Tournier, est un héros
emblématique pour son parcours transformationnel. Le cheminement
réflexif de Robinson concernant la condition humaine évaluée en étroite
liaison avec l’appréhension de son univers de croyance passe de la certitude
Pour de détails sur l’art de la fugue dans l’écriture tournierienne nous renvoyons à
l’ouvrage de Bouloumié (1988).
8
117
absolue vers la quasi-certitude et l’incertitude pour faire ensuite marche
arrière.
Entre l’épistémique et le déontique, en passant par l’aléthique, les valeurs
discursives du verbe devoir réfléchissent la représentation de l’univers de
croyance des acteurs en jeu dans le roman Vendredi ou les Limbes du
Pacifique.
Bibliographie
Basilio, Kelly. 2009. «Incipit romanesque et coup de foudre amoureux».
Poétique 157: 69-87.
Bouloumié, Arlette. 1988. Michel Tournier. Le roman mythologique suivi de
questions à Michel Tournier. Paris: José Corti.
Dendale, Patrick. 1994. «Devoir épistémique, marqueur modal ou
évidentiel?». Langue française 102: 24-39.
Kronning, Hans. 1994. Modalité, cognition et polysémie: sémantique du
verbe modal ‘devoir’. Reprocentralen, HSC, Uppsala University.
Kronning, Hans. 2001. «Pour une tripartition des emplois du modal devoir».
Cahiers Chronos [Les verbes modaux] 8: 67-84.
Mitu, Mihaela. 2011. «L’incipit-lieu d’une pragmatique et d’une stratégie
scripturale». Language and Literature. European Landmarks of
Identity/ Langue et Littérature. Repères identitaires en contexte
européen 9: 82-89, Editura Universităţii din Piteşti.
Rabatel, Alain. 1998. La construction textuelle du point de vue. Lausanne,
Paris: Delachaux et Niestlé.
Tournier, Michel. 1989. Vendredi ou les Limbes du Pacifique, Le Roi des
Aulnes, Les Météores. Paris: Gallimard.
Tournier, Michel. 1977. Le vent Paraclet. Paris: Gallimard.
Tuţescu, Mariana. 2005. L’auxiliation de modalité. Dix auxi-verbes modaux.
Bucureşti: Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti.
Dictionnaire: Trésor de la langue française informatisé (TLFI), consulté le
15 février, 2013.
118
Les “certitudes” de Pangloss
Alexandrina Mustățea
University of Pitesti (Romania)
alexandrinamustatea@yahoo.com
Abstract
Candide ou L’Optimisme is a story with a thesis, by means of which
Voltaire aims at ridiculing Leibniz’s philosophy, the theories of the preestablished harmony and of the sufficient reason, which lead to the
conclusion that we live in the best of all possible worlds. For this purpose he
uses the literary formula of the anti-fairy tale, subjecting his heroes to a
series of misfortunes, on their long way from unjustified optimism to
disillusionment, respectively from the epistemological certainty to doubt.
Pangloss’s “philosophical” discourse is the very model of the character’s
manner of “reasoning”, which is followed faithfully by his disciple Candide
and constantly applied by the narrator, this false alter ego of the author. The
contrast between the “scholarly” form of the discourse, accompanied by the
attitude of the locutor, who manifests his certainty regarding the truth of the
information that he communicates, and its hilarious content, highlights in a
caricatural manner the ridiculousness of the character, serving perfectly the
sarcastic purpose of the author, who turns Leibniz’s philosophy into a huge
mockery
Keywords: Anti-fairy tale, certainty, doubt, discourse, mockery
1. Introduction
.
Assurance pleine et entière d’une chose ou adhésion totale de l’esprit à une
chose reconnue comme vraie, la certitude fait depuis l’Antiquité l’objet de
recherche des philosophes, des mathématiciens, des logiciens, des
physiciens, des linguistes, etc., produisant des controverses et des
redéfinitions avec chaque nouveau paradigme scientifique.
Pour les penseurs des Lumières, le concept recoupe les notions de vrai et
de faux. En digne représentant de l’époque de la critique universelle,
Voltaire va remettre en question les « certitudes » métaphysiques,
démontrant, à travers ses contes philosophiques, leur vanité face au
pragmatisme des rationalistes.
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2.
Un conte à thèse
Candide ou l’Optimisme est un conte à thèse, par lequel Voltaire vise à
ridiculiser la philosophie de Leibniz, ses théories de l’harmonie préétablie et
de la raison suffisante, qui mènent à la conclusion que nous vivons dans le
meilleur des mondes possible. Pour ce faire, il se sert de la formule littéraire
de l’anti conte de fées, faisant subir à ses héros toute une série d’épreuves,
voire de mésaventures, dans leur long itinéraire de l’optimisme béat vers le
désenchantement, respectivement de la certitude épistémologique non
fondée vers le doute.
Pour les rationalistes du XVIIIe siècle, le malheur se confond avec le
faux jugement. Aussi Voltaire construit-il son texte comme parfaite
illustration de cette conception, mettant les maux de ses personnages au
compte de leur manque de raison. Le premier chapitre du conte se constitue
en un véritable épisode pilote, présentant, de manière implicite, les
prémisses des malheurs à venir.
Dans ce contexte, le discours de Pangloss est le modèle même de la
manière de « raisonner » du personnage, modèle fidèlement suivi par son
disciple Candide et constamment appliqué par le narrateur, faux alter ego
de l’auteur.
3.
Le chorus de la bêtise
Notre analyse, placée sous le signe de la pragmatique littéraire et de la
rhétorique argumentative, se concentre sur un fragment représentatif de ce
chapitre, qui réunit, de manière polyphonique, les voix du narrateur, de
Pangloss et de Candide dans ce que nous avons appelé ailleurs « le chorus
de la bêtise » (Mustățea 2001, 60) :
Pangloss enseignait la métaphysico-théologo-cosmolonigologie. Il
prouvait admirablement qu'il n'y a point d'effet sans cause, et que, dans
ce meilleur des mondes possibles, le château de monseigneur le baron
était le plus beau des châteaux et madame la meilleure des baronnes
possibles.
« Il est démontré, disait-il, que les choses ne peuvent être autrement :
car, tout étant fait pour une fin, tout est nécessairement pour la meilleure
fin. Remarquez bien que les nez ont été faits pour porter des lunettes,
aussi avons-nous des lunettes. Les jambes sont visiblement instituées
pour être chaussées, et nous avons des chausses. Les pierres ont été
formées pour être taillées, et pour en faire des châteaux, aussi
monseigneur a un très beau château ; le plus grand baron de la province
doit être le mieux logé ; et, les cochons étant faits pour être mangés, nous
120
mangeons du porc toute l'année : par conséquent, ceux qui ont avancé
que tout est bien ont dit une sottise ; il fallait dire que tout est au
mieux. »
Candide écoutait attentivement, et croyait innocemment ; car il
trouvait Mlle Cunégonde extrêmement belle, quoiqu'il ne prît jamais la
hardiesse de le lui dire. Il concluait qu'après le bonheur d'être né baron
de Thunder-ten-tronckh, le second degré de bonheur était d'être Mlle
Cunégonde ; le troisième, de la voir tous les jours ; et le quatrième,
d'entendre maître Pangloss, le plus grand philosophe de la province, et
par conséquent de toute la terre (Voltaire 1966, 180).
Le premier paragraphe du fragment est pris en charge par le narrateur. Il
s’agit d’un narrateur hétérodiégétique à la première personne, manifesté par
une seule occurrence – « c’est, je crois, pour cette raison qu’on le nommait
Candide » dit-il au début du texte - pour qu’il s’efface ensuite, laissant
l’impression que l’histoire se raconte d’elle-même.
Ici il fait l’introduction du précepteur Pangloss, l’oracle de la maison de
monsieur le baron de Thunder-ten-tronckh, après avoir présenté tous les
habitants du château, pour lui donner ensuite la parole par le discours direct
rapporté.
Nous assistons, en fait, le long du premier chapitre du conte, à un
dédoublement énonciatif ironique, donc polyphonique (cf. Ducrot 1984,
204-206), le narrateur laissant entendre deux énonciateurs, E1 et E2, qui
soutiennent des points de vue contraires: le premier, ce faux alter ego de
l’auteur que nous venons de mentionner, et qui débite des inepties sous
l’apparence d’un discours sérieux, mi descriptif, mi argumentatif ; le
second, le véritable porte-paroles de Voltaire, qui fait entendre le contraire
des affirmations du premier, parsemant le discours de marqueurs d’ironie
très bien dissimulés derrière les dires naïfs de celui-ci.
Symétriquement, il y a dédoublement du destinataire. On a, d’une part, le
narrataire, tout aussi naïf que le narrateur, supposé incapable de saisir les
sous-entendus du texte, prenant à la lettre les dires de celui-ci, et d’autre
part, le lecteur modèle, appartenant à cette « aristocratie de l’esprit » avec
laquelle Voltaire communique par des clins d’œil ironiques et qui est le vrai
destinataire du discours.
Tout le long du fragment l’ironie se double d’humour, les deux modalités
d’expression se mettant réciproquement en valeur. Si l’ironie est une « surénonciation », dans le sens que l’énonciateur prend ses distances par rapport
à ce qu’il énonce, manifestant sa supériorité cognitive et/ou axiologique face
à sa cible, l’humour est une « sous-énonciation », l’énonciateur s’y
impliquant, tout en impliquant son énonciataire (cf. Rabatel, 2013).
L’humour « est tourné, à la fois, vers le monde, dans le désir de le remettre
en cause, et vers l’autre, dans le désir de le rendre complice » (Charaudeau
2011, 6).
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Les deux modalités rappellent en même temps que « l’interprétation est
un processus complexe, pour partie interne au texte et pour partie extérieur à
lui » (Rabatel 2013, 36), le narrataire et le lecteur se rencontrant et se
séparant dans le jeu polyphonique de l’énonciation.
Dès le premier énoncé - Pangloss enseignait la métaphysico-théologocosmolonigologie - le clivage entre les deux énonciateurs est bine évident :
le premier manifeste son admiration envers le personnage en question, le
second le ridiculise. Le savoir de Pangloss, ses compétences multiples métaphysique, théologie, cosmologie - semblent être pour E1 une raison
suffisante de le présenter comme une autorité scientifique et didactique
digne de respect. Ce que E2 glisse subrepticement dans le discours du
premier est la nigologie, terme inventé, formé par la dénaturation du mot
nigaud, qui met l’ensemble sous une perspective différente, affirmant, au
contraire, la stupidité du personnage, son charabia à prétention savante.
La suite rapporte indirectement les dires de Pangloss par un discours qui
laisse entendre une multitude de voix : celle du narrateur disjoint en E1 et
E2, celle de Pangloss lui-même et celle du philosophe paraphrasé et
ridiculisé, Leibniz. Nous assistons ainsi à une sorte de mise en abyme du
dialogisme même. La subtilité énonciative est telle qu’elle peut égarer
l’éventuel lecteur naïf, cible implicite de l’ironie du mystificateur que
s’avère être Voltaire. Car celui-ci se plaît à brouiller les pistes, mettant à
profit le cliché de lecture qui assigne au narrateur le rôle de porte-parole de
l’auteur, pour faire accréditer l’idée qu’il est lui-même adepte de la
philosophie leibnizienne.
E1 illustre, en toute naïveté, la « méthode philosophique » de Pangloss,
celle de la raison suffisante, basée sur le syllogisme et ses dérivés, posant
comme vrais des sophismes. Il présente les faits comme étant indubitables,
certains – voir l’emploi du verbe prouver (dont le contenu sémantique est
apporter des preuves irréfutables), renforcé par le modalisateur appréciatif
admirablement : « Il prouvait admirablement qu'il n'y a point d'effet sans
cause, et que, dans ce meilleur des mondes possibles, le château de
monseigneur le baron était le plus beau des châteaux et madame la meilleure
des baronnes possibles. »
E2 se distancie de E1, donnant à entendre le contraire de ce que celui-ci
relate, de sorte que il prouvait admirablement doit être compris comme
antiphrastique, ironique. C’est l’énormité des affirmations qui en témoigne,
affirmations qui ne peuvent pas être mis au compte de l’auteur qu’en tant
qu’intention moqueuse.
Les assertions proprement dites, plus exactement leurs contenus
propositionnels – il n’y a point d’effet sans cause ; dans ce meilleur des
mondes possibles, le château de monseigneur le baron était le plus beau des
châteaux et madame la meilleure des baronnes possibles – sont attribués à
Pangloss, qui, à son tour, interprète et applique à sa manière la philosophie
leibnizienne. L’intention évidente de Voltaire est de discréditer cette
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philosophie, en se permettant de la déformer, d’en faire une caricature.
Aussi, selon la théorie de la raison suffisante dans l’interprétation
panglossienne via le narrateur, suffit-il qu’on vive dans le meilleur des
mondes possible pour que le château de monsieur le baron soit le plus beau
des châteaux et la baronne la meilleure des baronnes possibles, vu que dans
ce monde tout est au mieux, comme dira le personnage lui-même dans son
discours direct, quelques lignes plus bas.
On peut constater que Voltaire prête à son narrateur les défauts de pensée
de ses autres héros. Il est le double de Pangloss, tout comme le sera
Candide, son disciple. La fausse logique semble se répandre par
contamination, produisant une chaîne d’absurdités dont l’évidence est
souvent masquée par le mélange du vrai et du faux. Car s’il est logiquement
vrai que tout effet a une cause quelconque, il n’y a point de relation causale
entre la « perfection » du monde et la « perfection » du château ou de la
baronne. Il faut voir dans ce mélange encore une technique de la stratégie de
mystification à laquelle Voltaire soumet son lecteur.
C’est toujours sur la fausse causalité que se construit la suite du texte.
Le narrateur rapporte tout d’abord les paroles de Pangloss. Sous l’apparence
d’un discours scientifique, démonstratif, se cache une collection de faux
raisonnements à effet comique. Le contraste entre la forme « savante » du
discours, accompagnée par l’attitude du locuteur, manifestant sa certitude
quant à la vérité de l’information qu’il communique, et le contenu hilaire de
celui-ci, souligne de manière caricaturale le ridicule du personnage, servant
parfaitement le but sarcastique de l’auteur, qui transforme la philosophie
leibnizienne en une énorme risée.
D’un air doctoral, usant à tort et à travers de connecteurs argumentatifs
(car, aussi, par conséquent), de modalisateurs épistémiques
(nécessairement, visiblement) et d’un vocabulaire qui mélange tournures
scientifiques (il est démontré, remarquez bien ) et termes du quotidien le
plus banal (nez, lunettes, jambes, chausses, cochons, etc.), Pangloss émet
des inepties: les nez ont été faits pour porter des lunettes, les jambes pour
être chaussées, les pierres pour être taillées et pour en faire des châteaux.
Les prémisses étant fausses, les conclusions sont absurdes: nous portons des
lunettes parce que nous avons des nez et des chaussures parce que nous
avons des jambes, le baron a un très beau château parce qu’il existe des
pierres, etc. Toutes ses “preuves” sont censées soutenir la thèse de la
“meilleure fin”, or elles ne prouvent que le manque de logique du
personnage. Si Pangloss croit produire des syllogismes irréfutables,
Voltaire, lui, il propose à son lecteur des sophismes d’un comique
irrésistible.
Le ridicule du personnage est accru par la confiance totale qu’il a dans la
théorie qu’il soutient et dans sa démonstration. Il ne manifeste aucun doute
quant à la validité de ses dires. Il prononce un discours catégorique, ex
cathedra, qui n’admet pas de commentaire ou de contradiction. Le magister
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a toujours raison, même s’il manque de raison. Et de plus, c’est un discours
tout fait, clos, fermé sur lui-même, tautologique, bon à être utilisé dans toute
occasion, comme le démontrera la suite de l’histoire. Il lui faudra traverser
une logue suite de mésaventures pour qu’il sorte de son fixisme, abandonne
ses certitudes et accepte l’idée qu’il ne vit pas dans le meilleur des mondes
possibles. Mais même lorsqu’il perdra toute illusion, ne croyant plus à ses
thèses optimistes, il continuera à affirmer que tout est au mieux, rien que
pour être conséquent avec lui-même.
Sous la forme du discours indirect du narrateur, le dernier paragraphe
pénètre dans l’univers mental de Candide, pour illustrer, implicitement, sa
manière de raisonner, en totale harmonie avec les enseignements de son
maître.
Le héros produit, mimétiquement, des réflexions sur le monde
environnant, qu’il trouve, à l’exemple de Pangloss, parfait. La raison
suffisante de cette perfection est la beauté de Cunégonde: il vit dans le
meilleur des mondes possibles car il trouve « M elle Cunégonde extrêmement
belle ».
Le caractère dialogique du paragraphe est bien évident : c’est encore la
voix du narrateur, qui se charge, à travers le discours indirect, de présenter,
cette fois-ci, les « certitudes » de Candide ; puis c’est la voix de Candide
lui-même qui se fait entendre en tant que responsable des contenus
énoncés ; c’est enfin la voix de Pangloss, qui transparaît derrière les paroles
du narrateur et les idées de Candide, en sa qualité de maître de penser de son
disciple, auquel il prête sa « méthode » :
Candide écoutait attentivement, et croyait innocemment ; car il trouvait
Mlle Cunégonde extrêmement belle, quoiqu'il ne prît jamais la hardiesse
de le lui dire. Il concluait qu'après le bonheur d'être né baron de
Thunder-ten-tronckh, le second degré de bonheur était d'être Mlle
Cunégonde ; le troisième, de la voir tous les jours ; et le quatrième,
d'entendre maître Pangloss, le plus grand philosophe de la province, et
par conséquent de toute la terre (Voltaire 1966, 180).
Le manque de logique du personnage se manifeste à travers l’incohérence
du discours indirect qui transpose ses conceptions. Le thème du discours est
le bonheur, état universel qui connaît des degrés d’intensité sur un axe
scalaire ouvert, indéterminable, entre un bonheur suprême et un malheur
absolu, axe subjectif et donc individuel, variable selon les sujets qui en
jugent. Candide se pose naïvement en sujet - observateur universel, prenant
ses choix personnels pour généralement valables. Il énumère quatre degrés
de bonheur, découpant de manière arbitraire un continuum inclassable et
attribuant à la « catégorie » des raisons subjectives qu’il croit être
objectives, donc scientifiques, alors qu’en réalité il s’agit dès le début de
propositions absurdes, renforcées par un mélange de critères et un
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changement des points de vue absolument hilaires. Le tout est totalement
dépourvu de sens, les contenus n’étant ni vrais, ni faux, mais simplement
hors de propos.
Candide réduit l’univers entier à l’univers du château et pose ses préjugés
comme lois universelles. Si la logique du bon sens dit que le généralement
valable l’est aussi pour un univers particulier, l’antilogique de Candide pose
que ce qui est valable dans un univers particulier est généralement valable,
de manière nécessaire. Suivant cette logique à l’envers, si Pangloss est le
plus grand philosophe de la province, il est, par voie de conséquence, le plus
grand philosophe de la terre.
4.
La solution voltairienne
Voltaire condamne, à travers les propos absurdes de ses héros, l’acceptation
sans réflexion personnelle d’un savoir tout mâché par autrui, en opposition
avec le sapere aude ! kantien, véritable mot d’ordre des Lumières. Les
objets de la risée voltairienne sont à la fois le faux jugement, les
spéculations métaphysiques et, par parodie, le système philosophique de
Leibniz. Il mettra ses personnages dans la posture d’apprentis, parsemant
leur trajet existentiel sinueux de maux métaphysiques et sociaux, qui les
détermineront à changer « d’univers de croyance » (Martin 1983, 36-37).
« Le monde de ce qui est » (Martin 1983, 36-37) est bien loin du « meilleur
des mondes possibles » - c’est la leçon qu’ils apprennent à leur propre
dépens, secouant leur certitudes.
Le long et pénible apprentissage du doute remet les choses dans la voie
du cogito cartésien, rétablissant les valeurs des rationalistes du XVIIIe
siècle. Si l’on ne vit pas dans « le meilleur des mondes possibles », on doit
s’accommoder tant bien que mal du monde réel, en y « travaillant sans
raisonner » et en y « cultivant son jardin ».
Bien qu’il contredise apparemment l’esprit de l’époque, en fait ce
“travaillons sans raisonner” n’incite pas du tout au refus du raisonnement,
mais à l’élimination des spéculations métaphysiques inutiles, qui détournent
l’homme de ce qui est vraiment important pour son existence. Quant au
jardin évoqué, point final du voyage initiatique du héros et de ses
compagnons, il est la métaphore de la stabilité dans un monde dépourvu
d’illusions, dans lequel le travail a plutôt une fonction thérapeutique. Aussi
Voltaire propose-t-il, en contre partie à la construction leibnizienne, un
univers désenchanté, médiocre dans son essence, de par la réduction du
bonheur à un simple exercice de subsistance. Conclusion point optimiste,
qui confère au titre du conte un caractère antiphrastique et ironique.
125
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Le drame de la conscience moderne entre savoir et
vérité
Crina-Magdalena Zărnescu
University of Piteşti (Romania)
crina_zarnescu@yahoo.fr
Abstract
This paper aims at analysing the rapport between certainty and uncertainty
by “immersion” in Mallarme’s poetics where we can witness the dissolution
of the subject as final fortification of acquired certainties. The tragic interval
which insinuates itself within the linguistic sign, between the signifier and
signified, and alters the references to the other and to oneself is a
consequence of the identification failure of the self as subject, after
consecutive researches. The “witnesses” of this dissolution process are
Hérodiade, Igitur and Saint Jean the Baptist, the last one suggesting by
decapitation the irrepressible disjunction of the linguistic sign and of the self
but in the same time, the triumph of a certain fact: the acquisition of a pure
self.
Keywords : Certainty/uncertainty, subject, signifier/signified, alterity, drama
« La seule certitude, c’est que rien n’est certain » disait Pline l’Ancien et
c’est sous le signe de cette affirmation que je vais placer les considérations
qui suivent et qui sont centrées sur la crise du sujet regardée à travers
l’altérité qui définit la subjectivité mais qui, paradoxalement, aboutit à la
brisure de la fonction du sujet entre un désir de réconciliation et un principe
interne de division.
La définition même du « sujet » qui nous intéresse comme instrument
opératoire est censée être transitive et ambiguë en raison des frontières assez
labiles qui circonscrivent cette entité, mais qui fondent les représentations et
les actes de l’être humain. Alain Renaut pense « le sujet » en termes de
« subjectivité » du fait qu’il ne se réduit pas à l’idée d’individu, « mais
implique, au contraire, une transcendance, un dépassement de
l’individualité » (1995, 64), ce qui assure à travers la subjectivité un champ
commun de principes et de valeurs. C’est dire que le sujet ne prend
consistance que dans l’altérité qui le libère du solipsisme de la subjectivité.
Mais l’altérité rend encore plus problématique le rapport du sujet à l’autre,
que ce soit une entité extérieure, historique, ou intérieure, psychique –
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l’inconscient – et déclenche le drame de l’homme moderne, l’aliénation
morale et la dissolution de l’être même du sujet.
La Renaissance ouvre le trajet qui conduit de l’affirmation de l’homme
en tant qu’unité intégrative de l’humain et du divin à sa dissolution
commencée dans cet élan de dépassement de l’individualité subjective au
XVIIIe siècle et, surtout, vers sa fin, dans une intersubjectivité souhaitée,
garant d’un rapport équilibré entre le moi et le monde, mais qui a fait
avorter la communication arrivée au point de la brisure du sujet au XXe
siècle (cf. Habermas, Heidegger, Derrida, Foucault, etc.). Le cogito
cartésien représente dans l’histoire du sujet un moment de définition
apologétique, compris entre une période de recherche du sujet chez les
troubadours et le « qui suis-je ? » de Montaigne qui se découvrait à travers
chaque expérience et celle qui, selon Habermas (2011), proclame « la mort
de l’homme ». Dans Les Mots et les Choses (1966) et l’Archéologie du
savoir (1969) Michel Foucault considère que le langage renaît au moment
où meurt l’homme. La littérature enregistre ce passage du moi haïssable à
« Je est un autre » et jusqu’à l’abolition du sujet. Le vers de Mallarmé
« aboli bibelot d’inanité sonore » semble plus que suggestif, presque
prophétique, pour « la disparition élocutoire » du sujet et pour les
discontinuités et les ruptures mêmes qui lui arrivent au XXe siècle. Comme
Montaigne, Mallarmé convertit ses défaillances physiques en crise
métaphysique et révélation de soi, traverse l’expérience du néant, ressentant
comme Pascal le gouffre béant prêt à l’engloutir, mais qu’il transforme en
concept esthétique pour le faire présider à la déconstruction programmée de
tout parti pris poétique et des sentiers battus en littérature. « La destruction
fut ma Béatrice » disait celui qui contredisait avant la lettre Benveniste dont
« l’ego » n’est que « l’émergence dans l’être d’une propriété fondamentale
du langage » (Benveniste 1974, 259-260) et propose conséquemment la
dissolution des marqueurs déictiques spatio-temporels, définitoires pour le
sujet. Il faut préciser que le sujet dont on parle doit être considéré en dehors
de sa valeur empirique de pronom personnel bien que la présence ou
l’absence de cette séquence linguistique, « je », soit le reflet d’un principe
de représentation et d’organisation du monde extérieur des choses.
L’expérience du néant que Mallarmé provoque, en étant à la fois sa victime,
vise l’écroulement de tout édifice canonique du sens par un retour à
l’origine, à la fraîcheur impersonnelle des vocables au moment où la
« dépendance » allocutive n’existait pas et où les mots vivaient par euxmêmes. Hérodiade devant le miroir où elle cherche la vérité de son être nondivisé me semble inaugurer une littérature de l’intervalle tragique issu d’un
double rapport. Le sujet essaie de recouvrer sa consistance en relation avec
l’autre, mais cette relation devient problématique parce qu’il n’est jamais le
même. « […] Comme des feuilles sous ta glace au trou profond/ Je
m’apparus en toi comme une ombre lointaine » (Mallarmé 1998, 19).
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Faire l’analyse de la subjectivité dans le langage c’est identifier la part
d’immanence et de transcendance dans tout énoncé en tant que synthèse
entre un « je » qui dépasse sa condition et les représentations
symboliques/signifiantes de la chaîne énonciative. La poésie de Mallarmé se
refuse d’emblée à toute entreprise critique qui ne tiendrait pas compte de la
désintégration programmée de l’identité sémantique courante des mots et
d’une refonte des vocables ainsi disloqués dans « un mot total, neuf,
étranger à la langue et comme incantatoire » (Mallarmé 1998, 678),
incandescent, par une coïncidence multiple son-sens, signifiant-signifié,
passé-présent, etc. Dans la Lettre à H. Cazalis il fait l’aveu de toute cette
alchimie poétique : « Je veux me donner le spectacle de la matière, ayant
conscience d’elle, et, cependant, s’élançant forcément dans le Rêve qu’elle
sait n’être pas, chantant l’Âme et toutes les divines impressions pareilles qui
se sont amassées en nous depuis les premiers âges, et proclamant, devant le
Rien qui est la vérité, ces Glorieux Mensonges ! » (Mallarmé 1998, 697).
De ce point de vue, son Hérodiade peut être considérée comme une œuvre
expérimentale où il renverse les rapports établis entre matière et âme, rêve et
réalité, vérité et mensonge par une opération poursuivie de sublimation,
transfiguration, mutation symbolique qui s’accomplit au niveau
linguistique-poétique par le glissement subreptice des catégories
grammaticales et la reconfiguration dynamique des synonymies textuelles et
contextuelles (« Simplement parole et geste », Igitur) et, au niveau
symbolique-métaphysique, par une rhétorique de l’illusoire. Le miroir est
dans ce sens le reflet symbolique de la distance réflexive qui opère, d’un
côté, la séparation du signifiant du signifié et, de l’autre, le libre
épanchement de l’être dans les mots. Il doit, pour se recréer, se réfléchir et
se distancier à la fois de sa présence réelle (cf. Marchal 1988, 47). Et comme
argument, cette citation d’Igitur : « […] les complétant de sa splendeur, le
frémissement amorti, dans de l’oubli, comme une chevelure languissante,
autour du visage éclairé de mystère, aux yeux nuls pareils au miroir de
l’hôte, dénué de toute signification que de présence » (Mallarmé 1998, 496).
On ne peut nier que son histoire personnelle reste et se filtre dans tout le
processus d’élaboration d’un mythe personnel dont l’urgence est de le
séparer du contingent. Hérodiade est dans le même temps l’aveu de la
grande crise d’identité traversée par Mallarmé quand il a eu la révélation du
néant ; donc, regardée de cette perspective, elle reflète le profond drame du
poète, un drame de la disjonction intérieure, lequel converti en texte lyrique
rend compte de l’anéantissement qui le hante : « Moi seul moi seul je vais
connaître le néant. Vous, vous revenez à votre amalgame » (Mallarmé 1998,
494) - formule qui consacre par cette répétition « réflexive » (moi - moi /
vous - vous) dans le poème Igitur la disparition du sujet et du sens par la
réflexion du même, mais, à la fois, par la séparation de l’autre. Il est aussi à
rappeler la conception de la poésie comme miroir qui se reflète elle-même
sans aucun rapport dénotatif ou référentiel, par une sorte de
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conversion/consubstantialité symbolique qui s’actualise lors de chaque
lecture. Par ailleurs, il faut rappeler que dans le jeu de sens engendrés par le
géno-texte (cf. Kristeva 1974, 83) naît la confrontation entre la certitude et
l’incertitude, entre les significations habituelles unanimement acceptées et
leur actualisation indéterminée et permanente sous la pression des
changements allocutifs et des pulsions inconscientes.
L’idée de « certitude » ou d’ « incertitude » qu’on se fait à propos du
vécu se rattache d’habitude au procès dynamique pensée-langage qui nourrit
et équilibre le rapport du signifiant au signifié dans une sorte de
cohabitation traditionnelle. Au moment où ce rapport se modifie à force des
conversions interlocutives, l’incertitude mine la position des certitudes
acquises et on assiste aux décalages sémantiques qui se produisent à
l’intérieur du langage.
Dans l’Ouverture ancienne d’Hérodiade tout un passage lyrique pivote
autour d’un seul verbe fini « s’élève » qui semble séparer l’image réelle et
l’image reflétée en enchaînant plusieurs valeurs symboliques. Désir et refus
d’élévation infinie, division du « je » et lutte avec l’autre, désir et refus
d’intégration individuelle, dualité irréductible du rêve et de la vie,
séparation de la réflexion attendue (dans le miroir) et la réalité existentielle,
coupure épistémologique et vide existentiel.
Ombre magicienne aux symboliques charmes !
Une voix, du passé longue évocation,
Est-ce la mienne prête à l'incantation ?
Encore dans les plis jaunes de la pensée
Traînant, antique, ainsi qu’une étoile encensée.
Sur un confus amas d’ostensoirs refroidis,
Par les trous anciens et par les plis roidis
Percés selon le rythme et les dentelles pures
Du suaire laissant par ses belles guipures
Désespéré monter le vieil éclat voilé
S’élève : (ô quel lointain en ces appels celé !)
Le vieil éclat voilé du vermeil insolite,
De la voix languissant, nulle, sans acolyte, (-sans écho/reflet, n. n.)
Jettera-t-il son or par dernières splendeurs,
Elle, encore, l’antienne aux versets demandeurs,
A l’heure d’agonie et de luttes funèbres !
Et, force du silence et des noires ténèbres
Tout rentre également en l’ancien passé,
Fatidique, vaincu, monotone, lassé,
Comme l’eau des bassins anciens se résigne.
(Mallarmé 1998, 136)
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Cette « phrase » poétique nous intéresse sous plusieurs aspects qui tiennent,
d’une façon ou d’une autre, du symbolisme du miroir en tant que passage
d’un monde reflété à un monde reflétant et virtuel, d’une symétrie des
moments de la journée soutenue par un axe médian qui rappelle le minuit
d’Igitur et qui sépare le crépuscule et ses couleurs éclatantes de sa retombée
dans le « silence et des noires ténèbres », retombée qui évoque la
décollation de Saint Jean. Sur l’intériorité réflexive se joue le pari poétique
de Mallarmé pour qui l’écriture accomplit le rôle de distanciation par
rapport à l’immédiateté sensible et d’effacement de l’irréalité qui est le
propre de la subjectivité. L’écriture qui décroche par ce jeu réflexif ses
qualités de réflexivité est destinée à défaire le mensonge de l’unité du sujet
et du monde pour faire place à l’incertitude de l’existant. Mais, on se
demande si au bout de l’incertitude engendrée par cette suite d’affirmations
et de négations (tout le symbolisme de la dentelle y concourt : trous
anciens, plis percés, dentelles pures, belles guipures, etc.) on est en
possession de la vérité, si c’était à suivre la démarche cartésienne qui mène
de l’incertitude à la postulation des vérités. Il semble que pour Descartes,
comme pour Mallarmé et pour Sartre, plus tard, le rapport du doute à la
vérité, de l’incertitude à la certitude ne puisse se rattacher qu’au moment
présent puisque le passé comme l’avenir qui multiplie les hypostases du
sujet, altère la perception des choses. Devant la glace, Igitur « se sépare du
temps indéfini et il est », parce qu’il se soustrait de son existence
contingente et immédiate pour devenir « infiniment autre » (Valéry 1974,
211). Pour que le moi existe il doit se renier ; « le moi est négation » disait
Valéry (1974, 301). Hérodiade, Saint Jean le Baptiste, Igitur sont les
témoins symboliques de tout un processus d’aliénation et d’identification
auquel Mallarmé soumet son être poétique. La dénégation qui élimine le
contenu présent (le signifiant) pour conserver la forme du présent (le
signifié) apparaît, selon Freud, comme le paradoxe d’un sujet qui
s’expérimente comme division du savoir et de la vérité. Au bout de ce
drame expiatoire le sujet n’est plus Mallarmé – être éphémère et physique
mené par les caprices d’une existence bornée - mais « une aptitude qu’a
l’univers spirituel à se voir et à se développer à travers ce que fut moi »
(Mallarmé 1998, 242).
Igitur devient la scène où le sujet subit cette série de transformations sous
le signe d’une négation fondamentale, premièrement au niveau formel par le
dédoublement de l’instance pronominale [il] [je] en se niant, négation qui
évoque la soustraction de tout conditionnement extérieur et, au niveau
symbolique, par la métaphore de « la glace » qui requiert les attributs de
l’identification et de la révélation d’un moi pur qui n’apparaît que dans et
par ce refus. Par l’acte de soustraction le moi se manifeste pour lui-même
c’est-à-dire pur, aboutissant à « la meilleur image de soi qui est Zéro»
(Valéry II, 297). En voilà comme argument deux citations tirées d’Igitur :
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Il se sépare du temps indéfini et il est ! […] remplir une glace d’ennui
où, suffoquant et étouffé, je suppliais (identité acquise) de rester une
vague figure qui disparaissait complètement dans la glace confondue
(Mallarmé 1998, 499).
Et quand je rouvrais les yeux au fond du miroir, je voyais le personnage
d’horreur, le fantôme de l’horreur absorber peu à peu ce qui restait de
sentiment et de douleur dans la glace, nourrir son horreur des suprêmes
frissons des chimères et de l’instabilité des tentures, et se former en
raréfiant la glace jusqu’à une pureté inouïe (Mallarmé 1998, 499).
Tout ce qui arrive au niveau de l’être physique et spirituel se reflète par et
dans l’écriture parce que la parole est « la liaison à soi et à la contingence »
(Valéry, C. II, 293). On pose donc une relation triadique qui établit des
équivalences entre le moi / le sujet/le langage censées subir le même
processus régressif de restitution par négation, anéantissement, pour arriver
au lieu idéal où « un sujet nouveau surgi de l’annihilation d’un moi ancien
qui se réfléchissait dans un absolu objectif, qu’il s’agisse de l’univers luimême ou d’une œuvre à créer. » (Marchal 1988, 86) On a remarqué que
tout ce parcours de décantation, de purification rappelle le doute cartésien
qui amène le poète à tout reprendre à zéro. Mais, tandis que chez Descartes
le donc marque le passage de la subjectivité à l’objectivité et, par là, à
l’authenticité du moi, chez Mallarmé le donc/igitur ne relève que dans la
fiction constitutive du sujet qui s’enroule sur lui-même en se reflétant
seulement dans son nom comme dans un miroir (Marchal, 1988, 96). Le
miroir qui absorbe son reflet « dans son cadre gelé » est plus qu’un lieu
symbolique, il acquiert une valeur épistémologique. Et Hérodiade de dire :
« Comme des feuilles sous ta glace au trou profond// Je m’apparus en toi
comme une ombre lointaine// Mais, horreur ! des soirs dans ta sévère
fontaine, // J’ai de mon rêve épars connu la nudité » (Mallarmé 1998,19).
Dans la même lignée interprétative, on peut conjecturer que dans la
décapitation de Saint Jean du Cantique… Mallarmé a sublimé la dualité,
« l’altérité », du signe linguistique – signifiant = le corps ; signifié = la
tête/l’esprit – pour le faire s’identifier à lui-même par l’acte même de
négation-décollation. « Et ma tête surgie/Solitaire vigie/Dans les vols
triomphaux de cette faux//Comme rupture franche/Plutôt refoule ou
tranche/Les anciens désaccords/Avec le corps » (Mallarmé 1998, 148).
La pensée poétique de Mallarmé dévoile une disjonction fondamentale à
l’intérieur de l’être, reflet d’une crise générale de la société « sans stabilité,
sans unité », menée par « l’inquiétude des esprits » qui « naît l’inexplicable
besoin d’individualité » ((Mallarmé 1998, 697). C’est une société qui perd
la certitude de ses repères du fait d’une discordance entre les représentations
qu’elle s’est faites, comme le note Bertrand Marchal, et une réalité qui les
nie (Marchal 1993, 23). Considérée de ce point de vue, la perspective que
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propose Mallarmé en devient une critique et rejoint ainsi l’ironie
déconstructrice de Lautréamont ou l’antitotalitarisme du surréalisme pour
ressourcer l’opération déconstructiviste de Derrida. Tous ces parcours
littéraires, critiques, philosophiques sont redevables à l’intention de vérité
qui justifie la recherche de la perspective – j’ai emprunté ce terme à Ricœur
– en tant que dépassement des limites de l’être, du sujet et affirmation de
l’altérité, la seule qui définisse la différence de moi à moi-même et de moi à
l’autre, pour atteindre ainsi à la concordance de l’exigence - en langage
aristotélicien signifiant « bonheur » que l’homme poursuit – et sa propre
contingence, qui repose sur la conscience de la différence à autrui.
Au terme de cette dialectique de l’affirmation originaire par une suite de
négations, le sujet se trouve-t-il identique à lui-même ou différent à force
d’être entraîné dans ce décalage entre la réalité hors de lui-même et la
médiation fragile pour soi-même, entre l’Apparaître et le Dire, entre
l’Incertitude et la Certitude ? Qui pourrait répondre à cette question ?
Bibliographie
Benveniste, Emile. 1974. « De la subjectivité dans le langage ». Problèmes
de linguistique générale 1. Paris : Gallimard.
Foucault, Michel. 1966. Les Mots et les Choses, Une archéologie des
sciences humaines. Paris : Gallimard, coll. « Bibliothèque des
sciences humaines ».
Foucault, Michel. 1969. L’Archéologie du savoir. Paris : Gallimard,
« Bibliothèque des sciences humaines ».
Habermas, Jürgen. 2011. Le discours philosophique de la modernité.
Traduction Christian Bouchindhomme, Paris : Tel Gallimard.
Mallarmé, Stéphane. 1998. Œuvres complètes. Edition présentée, établie et
annotée par Bertrand Marchal, Paris : Gallimard.
Marchal, Bertrand. 1988. La religion de Mallarmé, Paris : José Corti.
Marchal, Bertrand. 1993. Lire le symbolisme, Paris : Dunod.
Renaut, Alain. 1995. L’individu, Réflexions sur la philosophie du sujet,
Paris : Hatier.
Valéry, Paul. 1974. Cahiers, Ed. J. Robinson, Paris: Gallimard.
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Chapter 3
Media
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The expression of certainty and uncertainty in social
communication campaigns
Elisa Pellegrino1, Luisa Salvati2
1
University of Naples “L’Orientale” (Italy)
epellegrino@unior.it
2
University for Foreigners of Siena (Italy)
salvati@unistrasi.it
Abstract
This study represents the final step in a wide research intended to compare
the print, television and radio advertising campaigns on issues of racism and
immigration, launched in Italy since 1990s. Verifying whether the
communicative process, the linguistic and extra-linguistic features
expressing the status of the foreigners, the kind of relationship between
natives and non natives and the social roles assigned to immigrants in the
social communication campaigns vary in accordance to the kind of the
advertising agency (governmental/ non governmental/ private bodies), and
to the Italian political context (left wing/ right wing) we determine the way
the advertising agencies express the degree of certainty and uncertainty
towards the message they are conveying to Italian hearers and readers.
Keywords: Social communication, political context and representation of
foreigners, prosodic features
1. Introduction
The term social communication refers to those forms of public
communication that share the following key features: they do not produce
commercial profit, are politically super-partes and attempt to inform,
persuade and motivate changes in behavior for the sake of societal benefit
(Kotler and Lee 2009). In the last decades, the importance of this kind of
communication for shaping citizens’ behaviour and knowledge towards
desirable social outcomes has caused the launch of numerous advertising
initiatives addressing health and environmental issues, social development,
instruction and religion.
In Italy, the use of social communication as a vehicle for promoting
behavior and knowledge changes dates back to the early Seventies, with the
experience of the Foundation Pubblicità Progresso (Contri 2005). Since
then, private bodies, governmental agencies and Non Governmental
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Organizations (NGOs) have relied on this kind of communication to
encourage individuals’ awareness of important social questions (Gadotti
2001, 2005). In particular, the early Nineties marked the launch of various
advertising campaigns designed to build in the Italians’ mind the certainty
that social cohesion, xenophile and collaborative behaviour towards
foreigners were the only and most effective ways of overcoming the human
and organizational problems related to the growing immigration
phenomenon.
2. The Study
This study represents the final step of a multi-phase descriptive study
intended to compare the print, television and radio advertising campaigns on
the issues of racism and immigration, launched in Italy from the Nineties to
nowadays (Pellegrino et al. 2011, 2012, 2013). The guiding thread of the
different stages of research was to verify whether the communicative
process, the linguistic and extra-linguistic features expressing the status of
the foreigners, the kind of relationship between natives and non-native
Italians and the social roles assigned to immigrants in the social campaigns
varied in accordance to the kind of the advertising agency
(governmental/non- governmental/ private bodies), and to the Italian
political context (left wing/ right wing). On the basis of these
considerations, in this study we aim to determine the way the advertising
agencies express the degree of certainty towards the message they were
conveying to Italian audience.
3. Materials and Methods
The corpus of social communication campaigns under study is drawn from
the web gallery of Fondazione Pubblicità Progesso and the web archive of
the Osservatorio delle Campagne di Comunicazioni Sociale. Querying the
two databases by Country, Topic and Category, fifteen advertising
campaigns dedicated to racism, immigration and refugees resulted.
However, most of the campaigns above mentioned consisted either of
printed materials or of music videos and radio ads that deliver the campaign
message without displaying any kind of interaction between Italians and
foreigners. Consequently we analyzed print, radio and TV advertisings that
permit to verify whether the political context and the nature of the
advertising institution might have influenced the representation of the
foreigners and the kind of relationship between Italians and immigrants. The
campaigns that fulfill this requirement are five:
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1. “Say not to racism, Say yes to tolerance”. The campaign was
promoted by the Foundation Pubblicità Progresso in 1990-1991.
2. “Integration Project”. The campaign on social inclusion for
immigrants, was launched by the Ministry of Labour, Health and
Welfare, in 2008-2009.
3. “Dosta!” The campaign against prejudice towards Roma was
launched by UNAR - the National Office for the fight against Racial
Discrimination of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, in
collaboration with the NGO Immigrazione Oggi in 2008.
4. “Do not be afraid!” The campaign against racism, indifference and
“the fear of the Other” was promoted by many national and
international NGOs, both religious and lay, in 2009.
5. “Made in Italy!” It was an awareness-raising campaign against
discrimination, launched in June 2012 by UNAR, in collaboration
with the Observatory of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs for the
protection against discriminatory acts and the Ministry for Equal
Opportunities.
3.1 Method
In reference to the components characterizing linguistic interactions (Hymes
1974) for each campaign, settings, participants, ends of speech, act sequence
and the overall tone of interactions were considered.
For printed advertising the focus was on the structure of the body copy,
the use of visuals and the characteristics of headline and pay-off between
spoken and written advertising campaign.
Relevant studies on the effects of spokesperson’s speech on advertising
outcomes have pointed out that the quality of voice, the modulation of the
rhythmic and prosodic parameters and the segmental accuracy of the
testimonials can affect the processing and interpretation of the Ad itself
(Lambert et al. 1960, Ryan and Sebastian 1980; Brown et al. 1985).
Consequently, following a consolidated methodology adopted in
experimental phonetics an acoustic analysis was carried out on the dialogues
between the native and non-native Italian speakers presented in the radio
and TV ads (Giannini and Pettorino 1998; Giannini 2005; Pettorino and
Giannini 2005, 2010).
By means of a software for speech analysis, i.e. Wavesurfer 1.8.8, for
each speaker the following measures were made:
a. the number of speech chains, that is the portion of speech between
two silences;
b. the number of syllables and duration of each speech chain,
c. the duration of silent pauses (SP) and disfluences,
d. the maximum and the minimum f0 value for each speech chain.
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Furthermore, some calculations were carried out in terms of:
a. articulation rate AR, i.e. the ratio between the number of syllables
and the speech chain duration (syll/s),
b. speech rate SR, i.e. the ratio between the number of syllables and the
utterance time (syll/s),
c. the silence and disfluence duration percentages,
d. the mean duration of silent pauses (s),
e. fluency (F), i.e. the ratio between the number of syllables and the
number of speech chains(syll/SC),
f. the tonal range (TR), i.e. the difference between the maximum and
minimum f0 value in an utterance, calculated in semitones (st).
4. Analysis
4.1 Say not to racism. Say yes to tolerance
The campaign entitled translation “Say No to racism. Say Yes to tolerance”
by Fondazione Pubblicità Progresso dates back to 1990 and 1991, when the
Italian government was led by the Christian Democratic Party and during
which time the immigration boom was underway. The campaign consisted
of three phases (Spring ‘90 – Summer ‘90 – Winter '91). The materials were
a radio advertising campaign, one black and white and one color TV ad, five
black and white posters and eleven color posters.
4.1.1 Print Campaign
In a context flooded by messages of all kinds, the certainty towards the
campaign message was achieved by means of a body-copy that strikes the
reader’s attention, can be easily memorized and produces a particular
behavioral choice as a final effect. Five posters highlights the absence of
color and the combination of black and white images, strongly emphasizing
the lack of warmth, affection and love. The campaign uses two textual
versions, one with images, one without. The first version focuses on the
black and white contrast, the font size and the spatial location of the body
copy (See Figures 1-2).
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Figure 6
Figure 7
The text is a single justified block, differing clearly from the headline and
consisting of two nominal sentences, one affirmative and one negative
centered at the top (“No al razzismo. Sì alla tolleranza” equivalent to “Say
No to racism. Say Yes to tolerance”). The black background with white
lettering is made to impact the reader, instead the white background with the
black lettering is more conventional. The headline centrally positioned and
written on two lines with very large letters immediately strikes the reader,
who may choose not to read all the text below.
The second version of the print campaign focuses, instead, on the
combination of a written text and a provocative image of a black Christ on
the Cross gazing the reader, making him/her feel guilty (see Figure 3).
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Figure 8
The poster wanted to evoke a series of associations related to the collective
imagination of a society still heavily imbued in Catholicism. The image of
Christ in Italian popular culture has typically Nordic physical traits. In this
campaign, instead, he is transformed into a black man with typical African
traits. The headline is placed on top without further explanation.
The third phase of the campaign introduces colors and its approach is not
as disturbing as the previous. The protagonists were all minors. In one
poster there is an African child teaching white child how to write. Their
eyes are on the notebook and their hands are touching lightly (see Figure 4)
Figure 9
In another poster two happy and smiling children are cycling, the white boy
is sitting behind and holding on to his black friend (see Figure 5).
Figure 10
The headline changes from “No al razzismo. Sì alla tolleranza” to “Saranno
amici per la pelle” (“They will be bosom friends”). The previous slogan
becomes the pay-off and it is placed near the mark of the advertising
agency. The new slogan plays with a very common expression in Italian,
“to be skin-friends” which literally means “to be inseparable”. The tense is
the future that is used to evoke the certainty, the hope that younger people
can succeed in building a better world. The slogan is adjacent to the image
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of the two boys, one white and one black, embracing each other or are very
close to each other. The black boy has a leading role and the text is realized
by the alternation of black and white. “They will be friends” is written in
black on a white background and overlaps the image, while “Skin” is
written in white on a black background and appears as an appendix to the
original message. It uses the metaphorical and literal meaning of the term:
skin will not be a problem for most young people because they will be
friends.
4.1.2 TV campaign
The TV campaign is based on two ads, one corresponding to the campaign
with the Black Christ, the other similar to the print campaign “They will be
bosom friends”. The first advertising reutilizes the image of Christ on the
Cross and the technique of using black and white. Unlike the posters which
focuses on the figure and the eyes of the Christ, the TV campaign
emphasizes all the stages of the actual Crucifixion, making the viewer feel
as guilty as the executioner. The black Christ is pictured in an isolated place,
lying on his back, with his hands and ankles tied to the cross with ropes and
fixed with nails. The man, as silent as the Christ in front of his executioners,
raises his eyes and directs them to the public-executioner. His disconsolate
expression and dismay are intended to blame and induce the public to avoid
xenophobic behaviors. The feeling of bewilderment and anxiety of the
spectator, the dramatic intensity of the scene is accentuated by the use of
black and white image and by some undistinguished overlapping and
repetition of multilingual utterances external to the scene. It is not casual
that the only clearly understandable speech sequences are “love” and “I am
not a racist”. Similarly to the radio ad, the slogan is recited at the end, so
that it can be easily remembered and imprinted in the listener’s mind. In the
radio ad, the listener's attention is directed towards the end of the message,
while in the print campaign the attention is directed to the initial part or on
the text written in larger fonts. On the contrary, in the TV campaign, the
visual and the acoustic channels overlap, the one enhancing the
communicative effectiveness of the other. In the final frame of the campaign
the public can read and listen to the slogan, written on two lines and
pronounced with a silent pause between the first and second nominal
sentence. This adds to the fact that the slogan “Say yes to tolerance”
appearing with the mark of the advertising agency, reveals its aspiration
both to promote tolerance in a society undergoing deep transformation and
to guide the public opinion, indicating which elements to consider
(tolerance) and which to refuse (racism).
The second advertising campaign is completely different from the
previous. Like the 1991 posters, it uses colors and adopts a more
encouraging approach towards the public. The campaign is softened with
images of hope, picturing children, youth and adults of all races
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acknowledging each other in simple and spontaneous gestures (being under
the same umbrella in the rain, shaking hands to greet each other) and
moments of sharing (playing football in the street, cards at the bar, quitting
school, dancing). Cafés, restaurants, streets, concerts become places for
people to meet and to coexist peacefully. Both in the pay-off of the print
campaign and in the slogan of the TV campaign there is an explicit
reference to a world still to be built. In the first case, this message is
expressed linguistically by using the future tense "they will be bosom
friends". In the second one, it is emphasized by the use of the imperative
with an exhortative function “Let’s prepare to live in a multiracial society”
In both cases, the receivers of the messages appear to be the younger
generations, and, indeed, in the print campaign the head-line appears next to
the image of the two boys. In the TV campaign, the slogan is recited when
two girls, one white and one black, appear under the same multi-colored
umbrella. Both in the print and TV campaigns different social groups
establish ordinary symmetrical interactions and none of the two is socially
or discursively dominant.
4.1.3 The Radio campaign
The radio campaign is based on a single ad, whose text corresponds exactly
to the body-copy of the press campaign in black and white with no pictures.
The ad is characterized by the presence of two voices: one male, which
reads the text of the campaign, the second one female, which concludes the
campaign by providing technical information about the communication
campaign, with reference to its targets and its promoter institution.
The ad lasts 30 seconds, where the percentage of silence is about 28%.
The male voice has an AR of 4.8 syll/s, so it is very slow, professional,
listener-oriented speech. In fact, compared to average conversational
speech, with an AR of 5-6 syll/s (Giannini 2000), this speech is much closer
to the characteristics of baby talk or speech addressed to deaf people (4
syll/s). The analysis of the TR also shows the presence of a monotone
speech which is quite low compared to conversational speech, that is to say
80 Hz compared to 100 Hz (for male voice). The fluency is also very low,
with an average value of 7.5 syll/SC, which confirms our considerations
mentioned above. Moreover, the very low value of SR average of 3.4 syll/s
shows the presence of many silent pauses, which do not correspond to
syntactic pauses, but they are purely emphatic. The analysis of examined
radio speech shows dominance of the speaker rather than the listener,
against whom he feels superior. The message is transmitted from top to
bottom with a clear didactic purpose: the speaker seems to be addressing to
racist listeners or potentially racist ones, so his voice will deliberately be
intimidating and cause anxiety. The slogan “No to racism. Yes to tolerance”
closes the advertising text, as in the TV ad, but differently the print
campaign.
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4.2 Campaign: Integration Project
Integration Project is a print, television and radio advertising campaign
about immigrant integration, sponsored by the Ministry of Labour, Health
and Welfare. The campaign is divided into two phases. The first one started
in October 2008, the second one in October 2009, funded by the European
Fund for Integration of non-European countries. In this period, Italy was
governed by a right-wing political coalition which dealt with the
intensification of migration with severe restrictive policies designed to
penalize illegal immigration.
The campaign is officially intended to foster intercultural dialogue
between foreigners and Italians and to support peaceful cohabitation and
coexistence between regular immigrants and Italians. It is addressed both to
immigrants and Italians, because it aims officially to inform the former of
their rights and duties, and to promote in the latter the knowledge of the
migratory phenomenon itself. Nevertheless, what emerges from the
campaign is not as noble: the objective is to communicate the certainty to
Italian and foreign audience that social integration of immigrants is
achievable through work and knowledge of language. However the jobs and
language varieties associated with the immigrants are questionable. Since
the campaign is launched by the Italian Ministry of Labour, Health and
Welfare, and is expected to mirror the government position towards
immigrants, it is very significant to note:
- the way social integration was carried out in the advertising campaign;
- the nature of the relationship between Italians and Foreigners
displayed in the television and radio advertisements;
- the social roles assigned to immigrants in the campaign.
The campaign consists of three press posters distributed in 2008, a
television advertisement campaign and two radio advertisement campaigns
broadcast in 2008 and 2009.
4.2.1 Print Campaign
The campaign is addressed to immigrants and focuses on reassuring images
of foreign people, smiling and engaged in low-profile jobs Italians are not
interested in (see Figures 6,7,8).
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Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Thus, there is a maid, a worker and a pizza chef, whose language knowledge
is represented by dialect. The TV and press campaign are very similar in
structure, contents and actors who are involved. In fact, in both cases there
is a sentence in dialect and the immigrants are not introduced as Italians, but
with name of their home country first, followed by the name of the
inhabitants of the cities where they live and the years spent there. As for the
textual part of printed campaign, it consists of a sentence in typical dialect
from Milan, Roman and Neapolitan, written in italics, to resemble speech,
and some information written in bubbles with a smaller font. The main
feature of the campaign is colors. The colors blue and orange, recall serenity
and radiance.
4.2.2 Television Campaign
The video advertisement campaign is characterized by four consecutive
sequences, whose main characters are the same three immigrants present in
the print advertisement campaign and a new fourth immigrant, Andrj, a
Ukrainian, who has been living in Palermo for 1 year.
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Each scene opens with an immigrant who is working and singing in
dialect the most popular song of the city where he/she works. A voice-over
draws attention to the complexity of being integrated in a foreign country,
but it also underlines awareness and respect for the law as a vehicle for
successful integration into the Italian society. These advertisements,
officially targeted towards foreigners, reveal the uncertainty of advertising
agency of how they have to deal with integration. The spot indeed are very
difficult to understand, due to both the choice of dialects and the very high
value of AR, SR and F (AR 7.34 syll./s; SR 7.04 syll./s, Fluency 20.25
syll./speech chain). Additionally, the choice of dialect for immigrants
supports the validity of a model of integration/assimilation to the host
culture which would prevent them from obtaining the Italian national
identity.
4.2.3 Radio Campaign
The radio campaign consists of two advertisements that share the same
textual structure but differs in some respects. Both ads last thirty seconds, of
which about 5.4% is silence. They are based upon a conversation between
an Italian speaker and a foreigner. The Italian with a strong regional accent
tries to teach the foreigner a popular expression in his/her own dialect and
the foreigner attempts to repeat it. When the conversation ends, the voice of
the institutional speaker gives technical information about the campaign.
The differences between the ads are the gender of the Italian speakers, the
home country of the immigrants and the content of the advertisement text.
In the first ad, a woman from Northern Italy tries to explain to Aziz, a
worker from Senegal, that he is in Italy to work. In the second a Neapolitan
man tried to teach Wassef, a pizza chef from Egypt, that no one is born with
the knowledge of how to do everything.
Analyzing the exchanges between Italians and immigrants and the values
of the suprasegmental features of speech, some important inference about
the social roles assigned to Italians and to immigrants and the nature of the
relationship between the speakers can be drawn. The conversations reveal
the strong political and ideological connotation of the campaign. Reflecting
the governmental policies towards immigrants, the ad presents the Italian
speakers and the foreign immigrants involved in an institutional speech
where asymmetrical relationships among participants were established. The
conversational rights and duties as well as the social roles are not equally
assigned to both groups of speakers. In both ads, the Italian speakers
represent the discursively and socially dominant figures. They act like
teachers, who offer the foreigners pearls of wisdom in Milanese and
Neapolitan. Conversely, the immigrants play the subordinate role of the
pupils who repeat the teacher’s input until they receive their teacher’s
approval. Like the speakers representing the institution, the Neapolitan man
and the Milanese woman exercise quantitative, interactive and semantic
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dominance in the dialogues (Linell and Luckmann 1991). The percentage of
phonation time per speaker is not equally distributed. In both radio
advertisement the foreigners occupied the least amount of ad space
compared to the length of speech uttered by the Italian and Institutional
speaker reciting the pay-off (see Table 1).
1st Ad
Aziz Milanese Institutional
speaker
speaker
9% 29%
62%
2nd Ad
Wassef Neapolitan Institutional
speaker
speaker
14%
22%
64%
Table 1. Percentages of phonation time per speaker and per radio ad.
Aziz speaks for only about 3 seconds out of 30, Wassef for 4. In addition,
the dialogical turn is never started by immigrants, in other words it is always
the Italian speaker that directs the interaction, chooses the topic of
conversation and controls the sequence organization. The reference to the
institutional speech of the class is more openly displayed by the use of
synonyms; expansion of the topic; starters, like “allora”; and the occurrence
of sequences of direct repair “no, no” started by the native and
accomplished by the foreigners (Piazza 1995; Boulima 1999).
The certainty of the dominance of the Italian speakers over the
immigrants and the pedagogical purposes of their discourse is also
supported by the very low AR and SR values of the speech produced by the
natives (Tusing and Dillard 2000; Dunbar and Burgoon 2005).
Generally speaking, the Italian speakers have an average AR of about 4.4
syll/s, which is typical of a hyper-articulated, listener-oriented speech.
Moreover, the female speaker’s articulatory movements are even more
accurate than those produced by the Neapolitan man (see Table 2).
AR
(syll/s)
Milanese speaker 4.3
Neapolitan speaker 4.7
SR
(syll/s)
F
(syll/SC)
3.6
4.5
6.7
7.5
Table 2. Prosodic features for Italian speaker.
Her message “Mi sun chi per laurà”, that is “immigrants can stay in Italy
only if they have a job” indeed, is much more politically oriented than the
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more neutral and encouraging “Nisciun’ nasce ‘mparato”, therefore it
deserves more accuracy when uttered. Indeed, her speech is much closer to
baby talk, and teacher talk or speech addressed to deaf people (4 syll/s) than
to the average conversational speech, which has an AR of 5-6 syll/s [33].
The third male voice which gives useful information for immigrant
integration is characterized by accelerated and speaker-oriented speech
(AR=7.4 syll/s; SR=7.1 syll/s; F=21.8 syll/SC), which is very difficult for
foreign people to understand. This datum is in direct contrast to the official
target of the campaign which is the promotion of integration for immigrants.
These considerations linked to social roles assigned to the immigrants in
the television advertisement lead to the certain conclusion that, according to
the Italian government, immigrants are destined to occupy only the lowest
position in Italian society. In fact they are not taught Italian, but a regional
dialect unintelligible in other parts of Italy and they are presented while
doing the jobs that Italians often do not want themselves: pizza chef, waiter,
workman, domestic. The Italian speakers dominate the foreign listeners,
who are never introduced as Italians, but with name of their home country
first, followed by the name of the inhabitants of the cities where they live
and the years spent there (i.e. Patricia / Philippines, Romana for two years).
Immigrants are placed in the context of a dialectal and socially low
subculture that locks them into a low social niche.
4.3 Dosta! Campaign to Eliminate Prejudice against Roma
The Campaign to eliminate prejudice against Roma was launched in 2008
by the National Department against Racial Discrimination, part of the
Ministry for Equal Opportunities and the NGO Immigrazione Oggi. While it
is a part of the international Campaign Dosta! - a Romani word meaning
“enough” - promoted by the Council of Europe, the Italian version is
specifically aimed to sponsor the Old Roma Tailor’s Shop, a social
cooperative founded by Roma women in Rome. The campaign consists of a
television advertisement which represents Roma and Sinti community
members in their daily lives with the aim of reducing the level of prejudice
and discrimination.
The protagonists of the spot are a child – even if only his voice is heard –
, a female Roma tailor, a young Roma man, who is studying at the Music
Academy Santa Cecilia in Rome and, finally, another Roma man, who is a
gardener. The narrator is the child who repeats all the stereotypes his father
has told him about the Roma while the images and the words uttered are in
direct contrast.
On the textual level, the first stereotype uttered by the child is: “My
father says that Roma women only steal and beg”. Soon after, there is the
image of a Roma tailor who says: “We steal the colors of the rainbow to
make your clothes”. In the second scene, when the child says: “My father
147
says that Roma men only steal”, there is a Roma young man with an
accordion who says: “I’m studying at Santa Cecilia. Is that stealing?”.
Finally, the child claims: “My father says that Roma make their children
steal and beg”. A scene with children going to school immediately follows.
In the second part of the television advertisement, there is a sudden
reversal of the above stereotypes. A soundtrack of Balkan music begins and
the child says: “My father met them (Roma people) and says that they are
not all the same and that it is possible to live together”. Therefore, the initial
goals of the campaign – the elimination of social prejudice and the
promotion of integration – are reached through a reversal of all the
stereotypes which are refuted by the reality represented. Although one of the
purposes was to promote the social cooperative The Old Roma Tailor’s
Shop, it never actually appears in the spot.
The analysis of this discrepancy between the words and images shows
that the advertisement develops on two tiers. On the one hand, the chiasm
“images vs. words” seems to be effective if we relate it to the initial goal of
the advertisement. Yet, Roma people are not represented as they really are,
but as they are expected to be: the woman is represented as a worker, not as
an entrepreneur; the young man seems more like a street musician, rather
than a student of a music academy; and the man is a rather innocuous quiet
gardener.
On a prosodic level, the spot develops through an indirect dialogue,
where characters deliver short monologues addressed to television watchers.
However, through their monologues, characters seem to reply to each other.
Indeed, speech analysis reveals a twofold structure of the ad as well. The
AR, SR and F are quite uniform, not only in terms of the relationship among
Italians and foreigners, but also in terms of utterances for each speaker (see
Table 3).
AR
(syll/s)
Italian child
Female Roma tailor
Roma student at
academy
Roma man
SR
(syll/s)
F
(syll/SC)
4.9
6.8
music 7.2
2.3
6.0
3.0
13.9
21
9.2
5.0
2.6
8
Table 3. Prosodic features for each speaker.
However, if we consider the percentage of phonation time for each character
during 1 minute and 12 seconds - 64.5 child, 8.43 the woman and about
13% the two men - the phonation time is totally imbalanced in favor of the
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child. In particular, the time dedicated to the woman, who is one of the
members of the above-mentioned social cooperative, is the shortest, while it
should have been one of the largest.
In conclusion, we note that in this campaign there is a superficial level,
characterized by a social message that appears quite effective, and a deep
level, characterized by a less enthusiastic governmental message Italian
television watchers want to listen to.
4. 4 Campaign: Do not Be Afraid
The campaign entitled “Do not be afraid”, organized by 26 secular and
religious organizations, is not politically oriented. The campaign is designed
to promote mutual understanding and dialogue between natives and the
“Other” and to break down prejudices and stereotypes that often result in
discrimination and violence. The campaign consists of a print campaign, a
television campaign and a radio one.
4.4.1 Print campaign
The print campaign is based on a poster that strikes for its visuals, since it
uses the image of a smiling child whose features resemble a Southern
Italian, or a North-African, or Romanian boy (see Figure 9).
Figure 14
He comes out of a white net that traps a man and a woman, in a blurred
background. The verbal text labels the white net of the image as a "cage"
and specifies its nature: prejudices (“Exit cage of prejudices”).
4.4.2 Television Campaign
The television advertisement campaign uses the image of the net of
prejudices from the print campaign and take it a step further.
Five people are trapped in it, two Italians (one woman from Northern
Italy and a man from Southern Italy), along with two foreigners, a man and
a woman, and a child from Romania. Similarly to the radio campaign, the
television campaign consists of several communicative exchanges in two
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voices, where participants, with an attitude of both suspicion and fake
solidarity with their interlocutor accuse each other. The woman from the
North stigmatizes the man from the South, who in turn blames Arab man,
who in turn accuses the African woman. The African woman blames
gypsies for the evils of society while the woman from Northern Italy glares
at the Neapolitan. This would seem to start the vicious circle of stereotypes
which is broken by the Romanian child who distances himself from all this
and with his candour and smile symbolically breaks the chains of
intolerance and leaves the cage built by prejudices.
Unlike “Integration project” and the campaign “Dosta!” against prejudice
towards Roma, the spot is designed to widespread the certainty that there is
no difference between Italians and foreigners in terms of social status,
working position or dominance in the interaction. The “Other”, referring
either to the foreigner, or to inhabitants from Southern Italy is
depersonalized and becomes an extremely generalized representative of
ethnic groups (Arabs, Africans, Gipsies, Southern Italians, Romanians) and
identity is rebuilt through the reallocation of prejudice and stereotypes. In
fact, the Southerners are Mafiosi, all the Arabs are terrorists, the Africans
are lazy, Gypsies are thieves.
4.4.3 Radio Campaign
The radio advertisement lasts 60 seconds. Voices alternate equally and even
music has a significant part, not just as background but also to cover
silences between one interlocutor and another. The total duration of speech
is about 74.8%. There are two females and two males. In addition, there is a
male voice that says the slogan, and a woman who indicates the website
promoting the advertising campaign. In detail, these voices, taking into
account gender differences, present an average conversational speech, with
an AR of 6.5 syll/s.
This is a talk that reflects normal conversation because the aim is
precisely the reproduction of daily speech where prejudices and clichés
often arise. This finding is confirmed by an SR average of about 5 syllables
per second in all voices. Excluding the woman from Northern Italy who
opens and closes the chain of stereotypes, the impression is that there is no
dominant voice.
4.5 Campaign: Made in Italy
Made in Italy is the title of a communication campaign broadcast in Italy in
July 2012 under a right-wing government. It was promoted by UNAR, in
collaboration with the Observatory of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs for
the protection against discriminatory acts and the Ministry for Equal
Opportunities. One TV spots represent its promotional material. The
campaign, co-financed by the Ministry of Interior and the European Fund
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for the Integration of non-UE Countries, aims to give the real picture of the
presence of Italians and immigrants in Italy and to foster among the former
anti-discriminatory attitudes towards foreign citizens. The campaign,
therefore, addressees two kinds of receivers: on the one hand, the foreign
national who is a victim of racism; on the other hand, the Italian citizen who
wants to report racist or xenophobic acts.
The TV spot lasts 36 seconds and focuses on the work done by foreign
workers in Italy. Indeed, the spot is set in a tailor. The camera captures some
brief moments and the facial expressions of workers of different ethnic
groups demonstrating satisfaction with their jobs since they are allowed to
create new products. Finally, after some finishes, the suit is ready and on
shirt hem and on collar there is the label 'Made in Italy' that, rather than
listing the fiber content, it presents the percentages of the ethnic groups
living in Italy. The certainty of the message is conveyed through meaningful
sentences going directly to the heart of the matter and where the present
tense leaves no room for doubt or misunderstanding: “A strong country is
based on sharing and equality”, “People who discriminate prevent
themselves and their country from moving forward, working and
developing”, “Real Italy knows how to integrate” (the claim closing the
spot). The male speaker utters these sentences calmly (TR=11.4 st) expressing confidence and control - and emphatically, producing very long
silent pauses (mean duration =0.5 seconds) that allow listener to metabolize
each step of the spot. Despite AR (7.3 syll/s) and SR (6.3 syll/s) exceed the
attested average for standard Italian (respectively 5-6 and 4-5 syll/s), the
message is clearly understandable even by foreigners, not only for the high
number of pauses (F=20 syll/SC) and their duration, but also because the
contact details to report a crime also appear on video while they are being
uttered by the spokesperson.
5. Conclusions
Data from the survey have highlighted that if the communicative channel
changes there are linguistic and extra-linguistic differences in expressing the
certainty towards the advertising message.
In the campaign “Say not to racism. Say yes to tolerance” of the ‘90s,
when the Italian government was led by the Christian Democratic Party, the
foreigner was a person to protect. On the one hand, there is a threatening
campaign, aimed at teaching Italians tolerance. On the other hand, it uses
the image of children as the symbol of hope for a future of peaceful
coexistence, a typical New Testament stereotype.
In the campaign “Integration Projects” launched between 2008 and 2009
by a right-wing government, which implemented severe restrictive policies
designed to penalize illegal immigration, foreigners seem destined to
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integrate and interact only within the lowest working sectors in the country.
Accordingly, this advertising influences the creation of specific social
representations of minority groups, legitimates the belief that there are
differences in status between the natives and immigrants and supports the
validity of a model of integration/assimilation to the host culture which
would lead immigrants to abandon their cultural identity.
The campaign “Do not be afraid” that was promoted only by NGOs is not
politically oriented. It tries to distance itself from this discriminating attitude
towards immigrants. The most important certainty is that Italians and
foreigners are on the same level and both are objects and bearers of
stereotypes. The Otherness, referring either to the foreigners, or to
inhabitants from Southern Italy is depersonalized and his/her identity is
rebuilt through the reallocation of prejudices and stereotypes. Nevertheless,
in this campaign there is probable unintentional discrimination between
Italian southerners and northerners. The North is only the bearer of
prejudice, and never the object of stereotypes.
The campaign against prejudice towards Roma “Dosta!” lies in the
middle, perhaps because it is promoted by both a governmental institution
and an NGO. Roma are objects of stereotypes, and are accused of being
thieves, beggars and child-exploiter, but at the same there is the attempt,
partially carried out, to launch the certainty that they are not the same.
In the 2012 campaign “Made in Italy” the official purpose is to provide
the foreigners constituting the Italian social fabric with the certainty that
their safety and protection is defended by political institutions. Nevertheless,
this certainty is susceptible to a subtler interpretation: foreign people
safeguarding is not granted primarily because it is a right of the immigrant
or for a philanthropic defensive attitude towards whoever lives in Italy. On
the contrary, as stated at the beginning of the spot, sharing and equality
between natives and non natives are to be fostered because they are the only
and certain distinctive features of all developed countries. Discriminations,
instead, represent an obstacle to the progress of the countries.
To sum up, the advertising initiatives examined in this paper reveal that
the social and political contexts as well as the institutional or non-profit
nature of the advertising institution are influential variables in determining
the degree of certainty towards the message they are conveying to Italian
hearers and readers. In addition, they show how social communication is not
politically super partes, but rather it reflects specific ideological values
related to the universe of promotion and acceptance.
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Facing uncertainty in a risk context:
the role of Social Networks (SNSs)
Maura Franchi, University of Parma (Italy)
maura.franchi@unipr.it
“Social networks are not the affirmation of something like truth, but the
creation of truth trough an endless series of clicks (Lovink, 2012, 42)
"Some certain news: an earthquake cannot be predicted, so do not be
alarmed if they say that aftershocks will come" (posted by a user on the
Facebook page Terremoto Mirabello, May 20 2013)
Abstract
The literature on risk communication stresses the discrepancy related to the
different perception of risk and the consequences on the life and safety of
persons. The consequences of this mismatch are relevant in emergency and
risk management. The article argues the particular nature of capital
channeled from social networks. In the context of particular risk and
insecurity (after the earthquake in May 2012 in Emilia-Romagna), social
networks provide tangible and intangible resources to cope with uncertainty.
The primary resource is constituted by sharing information in real time.
Other important conditions are the contiguity between information and
communication, the peculiar subjective and emotional language. In a
condition of risk and in a very uncertain situation, the social networks
enables individuals to cope with a condition of extreme insecurity and to
feed emotional reassurance.
Keywords: Risk management, social networks, uncertainty, social capital
1. Introduction
This article aims to argue how new sites of online relationships can
represent devices for coping with uncertainty in risk conditions. The new
communication context, represented by the Web and especially, social
networks sites (SNSs), works both due to the type of communication and the
particular form of social capital that can be built.
155
This hypothesis is discussed on the basis of research on the Facebook
pages created spontaneously after the earthquake in May 2012 in EmiliaRomagna. In the context of particular risk and uncertainty, such as produced
by the earthquake, social networks are able to provide tangible and
intangible resources to cope with uncertainty. The primary resource is based
on information sharing in real time, on contiguity between information and
communication, on the peculiar language and subjective narrative of SNSs.
The implications for risk communication in social emergency contexts are
relevant. However, research on the subject is still at its beginning.
2. Problems in risk communication
The literature on risk communication relates the response of individuals in
emergency situations to three main aspects: a) the quality of communication
related to the risk, b) social capital and, not least, c) the capacity of
individuals to manage the uncertainty derived from the event. In a risk
context, communication faces a threefold uncertainty: the first is concrete,
related to the natural/physical event, the second is a matter of
communication, the third is at an existential level.
Regarding the quality of communication, the literature underlines a
mismatch between those emitting a message and those receiving it: the risk
perception of the communicator is radically different to the risk perception
and its consequences by the parties involved in the risk itself (Pagano 2001).
Risk perception and vulnerability are factors influencing the ability of
individuals to make decisions. However, people respond differently to the
same facts and, consequently, the same uncertainty because they are
influenced by their perceptions of the problem (Patterson et al. 2010, 128).
This discrepancy is due, in large part, to the fact that the interpretation of
the message is always filtered by the set of direct and indirect experiences of
the subjects and the social images settled around the theme. Furthermore, as
is well known, people construct their risk perceptions on the basis of many
factors, not least on ethical, political and social criteria (Beccastrini Cerrai
2004, 123).
For these reasons, risk communication cannot only be arranged through
information, but must take into account different risk perceptions, which go
beyond pure experience, to connect to the cognitive constructs of those
involved and to the dynamics of the mental interpretation of the facts
(Pagano 2001, 115). Perceived risk is made up of two elements: firstly, the
assessment of natural hazards and vulnerability, that is, the "capacity to
anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard"
(Patterson et al. 2010, 128); and secondly, the social protection resources
available to the individuals.
156
Communication with other individuals in the same condition is crucial
because the perception of risk is grafted onto a body of knowledge
processed and transmitted by individuals in interpersonal relationships
(Beccastrini Cerrai 2004, 122). It is easy to see how the new context of
SNSs is becoming an issue, while the investigation of these implications is
at its absolute beginnings.
The resources arising from traditional forms of aggregation have been
widely explored: a rich literature revolves around the concept of social
capital. Social capital allows a person to draw on the resources of the
members of the network to which they belong. Bourdieu (1984) defines
social capital as all the social relations that an individual or group which
they belongs to can mobilize. Contributions emphasize different aspects,
such as the value of trust and rules of coexistence that allow individuals to
act collectively (Putnam, 2001) and the role of interpersonal relations
(Granovetter 1973, Coleman 1988).
Social capital is associated with a variety of positive social results such
as, for example, better health, lower crime rates, more efficient financial
markets. Among the benefits generated by social capital, the increased
capacity to take collective actions is emphasized, as well as greater
psychological well-being, higher levels of self-esteem and greater
satisfaction in general terms.
Social capital has, therefore, several implications: it is related to wellbeing derived from interpersonal interactions, produces aggregation,
encourages participation in charities and in political organizations offering
participants the opportunity to articulate demands and to achieve objectives.
It fosters a sense of belonging and increases organizational involvement in
collective projects (Wellman et al. 2001, 450).
In any case, when referring to social capital, we mean a set of resources
accumulated through relationships with people. So, can we assume that
relations are, in themselves, a tool which can be used to reduce uncertainty
in risk situations? Uncertainty, associated with a constitutive condition of
existence can be emphasized in particular risk conditions. In sociology,
uncertainty is related to constitutive aspects of late modernity: in particular,
a loss of solid guidelines (Bauman 1999), and the reflective approach
adopted by individuals regarding every choice made (Giddens 1990). Each
person takes on the task of building and rebuilding their judgment categories
and "reassurance" horizons by themselves, even by criticizing knowledge
from official sources. The risks in question may not necessarily be physical,
but rather existential, relating to events that we cannot work out using
conventional categories. Risk as a concept can also be referred to as the
consequence of human actions and technology (Beck 1980).
This experience can be understood, in anthropological terms, if we refer
to the pages written by Ernesto De Martino (1977), on the identity crisis
which occurs when individuals lose their usual horizons of reference. The
157
category of "crisis of presence", as existential feeling, indicates subjective
experiences of "disorientation" that may occur in different cultural contexts
where some radical changes or traumatic events take place. In these cases,
the subject, losing the references relating to their domestic horizon and not
recognizing the boundaries of their family background, experiences the "end
of the world."1
Recent studies have revealed that well-networked people are living
longer and are more resistant to diseases. Threats to social connection could
activate the same warning mechanisms of individual survival. Indeed, some
authors, confirming this anthropological approach, argue that psychological
distress and psychiatric disorders arise from social deficits (MeyerLindenberg Tost, 2012).
The construction of "reasonable" certainty for individual actions, today
takes place in a context characterized by conversational networks.
Networking emphasizes relationship initiation, often between strangers.
While networking is possible on these sites, it is not the primary practice on
many of them, nor is it what differentiates them from other forms of
computer-mediated communication (CMC) (Boyd Ellison 2007). SNSs
form relevant connective tissue where people form beliefs, representations
of reality and make decisions (Franchi Schianchi 2011)2.
Communication and cooperation, therefore, are the means used by
individuals to cope with uncertainty. And communication and cooperation
are made possible by the existence of social ties offering a variety of
benefits, including access to information, emotional and material support
(Donath 2007).
Through conversation, individuals feed their daily construction of
provisional certainties that remain constantly open to revisions and
adjustments (Franchi 2012a). It can be argued that these pages provide
useful social resources to cope with uncertainty and develop social capital,
triggering forms of operational cooperation for facing emergencies (Franchi
2012b). Can SNS be considered as the new places where the rite of
1
In the notes on so-called cultural apocalypses, De Martino relates that once he got into a
car in Calabria and he asked a shepherd to show him the right way, promising to bring him
back later to the starting point. The man got into the car with suspicion, which turned into
real distress, when he could no longer see the Marcellinara tower, near where he lived. The
bell tower was the reference point of his limited domestic space. Only when he saw the bell
tower again, did his face finally find peace (De Martino1977, 480).
2
We define social network sites (SNSs) as web-based services that allow individuals to (1)
construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of
other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of
connections and those made by others within the system. The nature and nomenclature of
these connections may vary from site to site. While we use the term "social network site" to
describe this phenomenon, the term "social networking sites" also appears in public
discourse, and the two terms are often used interchangeably. We chose not to employ the
term "networking" for two reasons: emphasis and scope (Boyd Ellison 2007).
158
"reintegration of presence" in the face of risk takes place today? More
generally, can SNSs be considered as individual devices where people seek
reassurance through the communication of uncertainty and information
sharing? The article will argue this hypothesis.
3.
Social networks sites (SNSs) and social capital
Social capital can be defined as "the sum of resources, actual or virtual, that
an individual or a group can reach, thanks to virtuous possession of a
durable network, more or less institutionalized, providing relationships,
knowledge and mutual recognition" (Ellison et al. 2007, 1145). It is
therefore legitimate to wonder about the ability of online networks to
produce social capital. The argument is still open, since the phenomenon of
mass participation in SNSs is recent and empirical research on the subject is
still insufficient.
What is clear is that Web 2.0 dramatically expands access to information,
making a virtually unlimited quantity of knowledge easily available. We are
aware that the Web organizes and filters information, deciding the hierarchy
of news, using our preferences or company advertisements as parameters.
The utopian vision of a globally transparent Web democracy allowing direct
forms of mass participation (Hindman 2008) was followed by radical
disappointment (Morozov 2011).
Web 2.0 changes individual access to information resources, not only in
terms of ease of access, speed and plurality of sources, but especially for its
growing intertwining with interpersonal communication. Information is
conveyed and filtered in relational contexts and is subject to a process of
continuous monitoring and reinterpretation (Franchi 2012a).
In the experience of millions of people, the Web is increasingly
intertwined with everyday life, in particular, the use of SNSs makes online
practice a personal, almost intimate experience: an archive of images and
memories, a vehicle for relations, a tool to express feelings, emotions,
personal stories, positions on world events, preferences, choices and so on.
The interplay between information and communication is becoming
increasingly tight. This happens not only because it is impossible to separate
what belongs to one or more domain, but more importantly, because the
network changes the very nature of information, which is interwoven
inextricably with the communication of everyday life. It can be said that any
information adopts an inherently dialogical, communicative dimension
authorizing reciprocity. As Watzlawick (1967) has already recalled,
communication is always for others, communicating means to share, build
cultural spaces and shared values.
Even with regard to the use of the Internet, there is no contradiction
between its use to keep contacts and its use to practice them face to face
159
(Wellman et al. 2001). Indeed using the Internet could increase online as
well as offline communication, since members of the network become more
aware of the needs of others and their relationships could be stimulated by
more frequent contacts. Moreover, the Internet allows users to share music,
photographs and materials, to meet in person, to exchange information. The
Internet, like any other type of network, could therefore increase share
capital by fostering contacts offline, participation and commitment to the
community.
Much has been written regarding changes introduced by SNSs in the
context of communication. Accelerating and multiplying communication
between individuals, technologies shaping forms of sociality and language,
affecting social discourses, worldviews and ways of thinking. Information
and communication are forming a continuum, investing everyday life,
becoming part of the set of materials that contribute to the construction of
individual identity and, not least, shaping people's language (Franchi,
Schianchi 2011).
The use of social networking has become part of everyday life for
millions of people of all ages around the world. SNSs provide part of the
support which is needed the world over, in order to keep track of constantly
changing relationships (Donath 2007); they are able to provide resources
and benefits of various kinds (Riva 2010), represent a mirror device
(Franchi Schianchi 2011). Digital communities enable new abilities, at both
individual and collective level, and form the basis of new forms of
collective action (Lanzara 2011, 374-375).
Investing in SNSs allows individuals to develop dimensions such as trust
and reciprocity, to have information shortcuts applicable in any context of
choice (Franchi Schianchi 2011). Social networks can promote reciprocity
and trust, triggering dynamic collaboration, by connecting participants to a
community and increasing knowledge of other members. Even if the Web
increases interpersonal connections, cooperation is the result of a number of
conditions and developments affecting technology, as well as cultural
orientation converging in supporting the deployment of new collaborative
models (Franchi 2012b).
Strong and weak ties do not seem to be in contradiction, as well as online
and offline participation: individuals with a large number of contacts online,
have larger relationships in their life, and could be more active in the
community. Valenzuela et al. (2009, 893) claim that Facebook not only
helps the individual in the construction of personal identity, but that it is
also a key ingredient for strengthening weak links and promoting collective
action. Entertainment needs might not be contrary to information needs.
Therefore, technology might not, by itself, influence individual capital.
Extending this concept to social networks, we can say that their impact on
social capital depends on their use.
160
Research conducted among the students of Michigan State University
(Ellison et al. 2007) indicates a positive correlation between the use of
SNSs, social capital and well-being. Students using Facebook intensely are
more satisfied with college life and have higher self-esteem. This can be
explained precisely by the fact that SNSs are able to increase bonds which
increase information and opportunities. Practices relating to information and
community building (e.g., online news, political blogs, virtual communities)
are positively associated with the individual's level of production of social
capital. On the other hand, practices related to entertainment and recreation
(such as games and movies online) are negatively associated with social
capital.
The role of SNSs in forming social capital in emergency situations has
been little explored. Patterson et al. (2010) point out that in a situation of
high risk and uncertainty, as in Hurricane Katrina 2005 in the United States,
the community's role was decisive in all phases of recovery management
and, indeed, local organizations, voluntary and non-governmental
organizations played a leading role.
This has been confirmed by the research presented here concerning the
pages created on Facebook after the earthquake in Emilia Romagna in May
2012. It emerges, in fact, that when faced with a situation of extreme
emergency and uncertainty, users react immediately by using opportunities
provided by SNSs to spread news, to respond to questions and promote
solidarity initiatives. Can it be said that social networks are able to produce
useful resources to cope with uncertainty? This contribution focuses on this
question.
4. Objectives and research methodology
4.1 Objectives
The role of SNSs in facing situations of uncertainty, is still unexplored,
despite being an almost universal practice today: in particular, Facebook has
seen an extraordinary expansion in each age group (from early childhood to
second adulthood).
The research carried out on the pages created after the earthquake on
May 20, 2012 in Emilia-Romagna aims to analyze the role of SNSs and
their reassurance characteristics in the context of particular risk and
uncertainty.
What kind of resources were individuals accessing Facebook pages in
such a context looking for? Aid, information, contacts? As we shall see,
these were mainly focused on the opportunity to receive and validate
information through sharing.
161
On the day of the event, Facebook was populated by a number of pages
dedicated to the earthquake. The pages have names referring to the event
and the location, and sometimes indicating, in the title, the slant of the page.
The pages may be based locally, may refer to limited geographical zones, or
have a regional area. Alongside the pages created by individuals, Facebook
is also home to pages by official institutions, which the private pages relate
to.
Why were pages created? What is their relationship to official pages?
What kind of resources do Facebook pages provide? How do they contribute
to individual protection in a context of uncertainty and risk?
4.2 Methodology
In the first phase we considered five pages created by users (Terremoto
Emilia-Romagna Informazioni, Aggiornamenti Terremoto Emilia-Romagna,
Terremoto in Emilia di Magnitudo 6, Terremoto Mirabello, Terremoto
Mirandola).3
Subsequently, on the basis of parameters such as the number of
subscribers, the number of posts and comments, and the number of likes, we
decided to focus on two pages: a regional page, Terremoto Emilia-Romagna
Informazioni, and a local one, Terremoto Mirabello. The analysis is based
on parameters expressing the level of interest the pages created. It should be
noted that the currently existing literature on the subject does not provide
predefined metrics that can be used as parameters for analysis.
In addition to these quantitative parameters (adhesions, number of posts,
number of comments, number of likes), qualitative parameters have been
used in order to understand the type of content conveyed in the pages. The
contents of the posts have been grouped according to three types:
conversations (comments of various kinds, thank you messages, support
messages, photos, criticism of official information, emoticons,
conversations, games, hate mail), information (demand, supply, sharing
information, links to official websites, etc.) aid (requests and offers,
solidarity initiatives etc.).
We proceeded to an analysis of the qualitative and quantitative posts
between May 20 and July 21, comparing the local and regional page and the
conversation contents in the first (20 May-20 June) and second month (June
21-July 21) in order to analyze how communication changed after the
emergency4.
3
4
We have quoted the names of the pages in their original language.
Thanks to Nicolle Bonetti for her contribution to the research.
162
5. Analysis
An analysis of the pages confirms their role in addressing user needs for
emotional reassurance in the face of uncertain situations. However, this role
is emphasized on pages close to the local community. A comparison
between official and spontaneous pages shows that the latter plays the role
of reassurance, creating social capital, activating forms of practical
cooperation, psychological and concrete support.
Pages perform both practical and psychological roles: they help in
organizing aid, in getting information in real time, in keeping in touch with
friends and family; they help people to feel less alone, to face anxiety, to
find anchors for a devastated daily routine. These two aspects are
intertwined: the need to have real-time information is accompanied by the
need to keep talking to people involved in the same experience: sharing
exerts a protective effect on identity.
The use of images is crucial. Equally crucial is the informative role
played by these pages, compared to official sources mediated by traditional
media (newspapers and television).
The page which was created to give information, fed by direct relations
between participants without local roots, loses its function in the second
month, when the emergency seems to be over.
The regional page, which was only created for information sharing, loses
bulk and attractiveness as the emergency stops, while the local page
dominates due to the size of the conversation that continues to support the
virtual group rooted in the real context. So, while in the second period, on
the Terremoto Emilia-Romagna Informazioni page, the category of
conversation disappears completely, the Terremoto Mirabello page, presents
an amount of conversations similar to the previous period.
The following table summarizes the quantitative parameters referred to
on the two analysed pages: Terremoto Emilia-Romagna Informazioni and
Terremoto Mirabello. Reference was made to different parameters, in
relation to the different page characteristics (individual or group page) in
order to measure the degree of adhesion5.
5
The values have been translated into percentages to make comparisons between the two
pages. The data refer to the entire period of analysis (May 20 to July 21).
163
Parameters
Add
Number of posts
Number of ratings
Number of like
Type of exchange
Emilia-Romagna
Terremoto
Informazioni
603
101
29
147
Information
Terremoto Mirabello
1331
537
1492
3873
Communication
Table 3: Degree of adhesion
The highest level of interaction on the Terremoto Emilia-Romagna
Informazione page is recorded in the period immediately following the
earthquake. The following table compares the two pages, in relation to the
degree of consent posted (measured by "I like") and the degree of
interaction (measured by the number of comments for each status)6.
Number of likes for each post
First month
Emilia-Romagna
1.4
Terremoto
Informazioni
Terremoto Mirabello
1.8
Degree of interaction (comment for each status)
Initial period
Emilia-Romagna
0.4
Terremoto
Informazioni
Terremoto Mirabello
2.7
Second month
0.2
2.0
Secondary period
0.07
2.9
Table 4: Degree of interacion
Regarding conversation content, the messages are grouped into three main
categories (news, chatting and help), each of which has been divided into
subcategories. The following table shows the weight of each subcategory.
6
In the Terremoto Informazioni Emilia-Romagna page, we have detected the total "like",
while membership of the Terremoto Mirabello page was calculated by members of the
group. In fact, there is no a “like” table in a group. The measurements refer to the periods in
which the analysis was performed (May 20-June 20 and June 21 to July 21).
164
Type of message
Terremoto
Emilia- Terremoto Mirabello
Romagna
Informazioni
Information
62%
13%
30%
7%
 Information sharing
2%
3%
 Information request
3%
 Link to other sites or 30%
pages
Conversations
26%
78%
1%
3%
 Thanks Messages
8%
5%
 Support Messages
2%
 Photographs
/ 2%
Images
1%
1%
 Disputing
information
from
official sources
0%
10%
 Conversations,
games (text and
pictures)
57%
 Various comments 14%
(experiences,
emotions,
social
activities, etc.)
Help
12%
9%
2%
1%
 Requests
0%
2%
 Answers
6%
 Solidarity initiatives 10%
Table 5: Contents of the conversations
The table confirms the different nature of the two pages. In particular, on the
Terremoto Emilia Romagna Information page, most messages belong to the
information category. Within it, information sharing and links to other sites
are crucial, while in the Terremoto Mirabello group more than half of the
comments fall into the conversation category. And, in this case, the
comments remain on the page for more time after the earthquake. The
various kinds of comments relate mainly to narrating personal experience,
sharing hopes and fears.
Incidentally, the playful dimension of these pages is an interesting, nonmarginal aspect, which increases in the second period. In the first stage, it
contributes to reducing anxiety and fear caused by the earthquake, despite
165
the fact that in the second, it is related to fundraising initiatives for
reconstruction projects. While, in the first period, the photographs depict
damage to the land, in the second phase, they are mainly oriented towards
recovery.
Protest messages are few and far between, although there is an increase
in the second period. Contrary to what we might imagine, the demand for
aid supplies plays a marginal role in both pages. Which resources are
mediated by SNSs?
SNSs offer two types of information: the first is based on sharing
information captured from official sites and sources, the second is produced
by those involved in the event. People show their photos of places involved,
pass on impressions and personal stories.
Many posts respond to information needs about the incident (danger
levels, damage to houses and injuries, the most affected areas, etc.) and
share some kind of support. Personal help is expressed in different ways:
special materials and resources are provided: tents, materials,
accommodation, practical advice, information on the availability of tents,
camp beds and blankets.
From the start these pages have a psychological "protection" value, as
well as an operational function in terms of emergency organization.
Communication between the people involved in the dramatic event is
maintained and strengthens the feeling of belonging to a community. The
community faces its trauma through this communication (expressions of
solidarity and closeness) with the outside world (“We are not alone”).
In summary, we can say that SNSs pages offer practical and
psychological resources. The practical pages help to organize aid, keep in
touch with friends and family and receive real-time updates. The
psychological resources use communication to help contain anxiety over
continuing uncertainty and find anchor points for everyday lives which have
been devastated. Sharing experiences exerts a protective effect: producing
and exchanging images is crucial.
Information posted by individuals is considered more reliable than
information received from official sources. SNSs play a role in mediating
information provided by official sources. In this sense, the dynamics of "Us
and Them" type triggers (criticism of either defects in information sources
or an excess of scare stories), demonstrate an attempt to find those
responsible (territorial instability, interests, inappropriate construction
regulations which were not followed.) The search for responsibility
becomes an additional element of reassurance. During the week, there
emerged additional types of resources that were projected towards recovery,
and preserving the memory of the event. These pages served to host
photographs and memorials, testifying to events and archiving collective
traumatic experience and helped to attract attention towards the place in
order to promote local tourism.
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6. Conclusions
In particular, the following aspects can be related to the resources on the
Facebook pages which have been analyzed: a) information available in real
time, b) sharing as an organizational resource to enable collaboration, d) the
ability to aggregate people on a territorial basis.
What is made available to all is not only information, but also an
emotional burden that, if managed in isolation, can produce confusion and
dismay. So, these pages have a social integration, anxiety control and
protective function regarding the risk of identity disintegration.
The community serves as a filter/validation for information from official.
information sources which become more reliable when sieved through the
direct experience of individuals. These testimonies are functional to
building individual coping resources for fear and uncertainty. The narrative
dimension of the experience is an important part of such reassurance
devices: putting your story together makes it more bearable and reduces
anxiety. Narrative has a cognitive function (it is not just the description of
events, but the selection of signals allowing you to make some predictions
about the evolution of the events themselves). Finally, all storytelling
protects, stores and transmits the memory of the events involved and
subtracts them from the passing of time.
Sharing different kinds of news appears to be an organizational resource:
it can enable collaboration, just as requests for everyone to participate do
(Sennett 2012). The pages allow direct expressions of solidarity that call for
and organize individual initiatives, activate cooperative actions and allow
events involving the local community to be organized.
We can see different forms of help on these Facebook pages: not only
outsiders helping those involved, but even working arrangements regarding
those receiving the help are activated by internal community resources
(Franchi 2012b). The correspondence of the online network with a local
community is a discriminating factor: online networks feed into a group
which exists in real life, organizes and promotes opportunities for people to
meet and takes part in concrete projects.
7.
Discussion and further research lines
An initial exploration was conducted into how SNSs can provide elements
for dealing with uncertainty relating to particularly risky events, through the
ability to produce social capital. SNSs can be considered as new places
where the rite of "reintegration of presence" can be played out, using weak
ties, such as sharing, filtering (and re-appropriating) elements of official
information and personal experience.
167
This proposed analysis has implications that go beyond the exceptional
case considered and invests, more generally, the role of interpersonal
communication in a social context. Firstly, it is clear that institutional
communication in such exceptional events can be aided by informal
exchanges of information by those involved. Since information is filtered
subjectively, what is required is a move from mere communication on
objective risks, to the management of subjective uncertainty, a process that
can be powered by the social capital available to individuals.
With regard to whether SNSs are inherently capable to producing
collaborative resources or not, we can assume that network communication
only functions if organized around anthropological contexts promoting
collaboration: indeed, collaboration is more active in a local community
context.
The research opens up further questions. Under what conditions does the
density of weak bonds intersecting SNSs become a collaborative resource?
Can SNSs open new scenarios in terms of the relationship between public
and private spheres?
Finally, if message sharing is liable to strengthen this relationship, can
we use SNSs for social communication? To this end, it is worth stressing
that in the face of risk, subjectivity and social filters do not represent
elements of noise, interference or disturbance to institutional
communication, but a resource which should be made use of.
Can we assume that SNSs ought to be used to build more effective
dynamic communicative contexts, contributing to annulling the distance
between the message transmitter and receiver, inducing a convergence of
observation points?
The participation of individuals in producing and sharing information
helps to reduce uncertainty. Facebook - the prototype of the new “social
language” - can be treated as a device which produces forms of mass
reassurance, based on contiguity between information and communication,
the cancellation of distance between the message communicator and
recipient, the dynamics of identification and sharing induced by peculiar
narratives, the subjective and emotional language of networks. It can be said
that the narrative device of SNSs tends to reassure people, firstly, because it
calls on them to express consent, aggregating homogeneous groups.
Secondly, through conversation, mechanisms of protection are enacted. So,
we can conclude that sharing gives people the opportunity to replace
emotional security with objective uncertainty.
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170
Discourse Analysis of Mood Structures in Oprah
Winfrey Show
Hala El Saj
Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Kaslik (Lebanon)
hala_saj@hotmail.com
Abstract
This article examines a meaningful part from the interview of Oprah
Winfrey with Queen Rania of Jordan. The dialogue is explored from a
critical discourse analysis approach (CDA); it focuses on Functional
Systematic Linguistics (FSL) and on grammatical approaches (SFG). The
transcript of the episode was analyzed to investigate the type and function of
the sentences used by Oprah throughout her conversation concerning
certainty and uncertainty.
The results suggest that Oprah uses various types of sentences mainly
probing questions as expression for her uncertainty. Another interesting way
of asking questions is by using emotional questions, expressing uncertainty.
Oprah used rhetorical questions revealing her knowledge and certainty.
Keywords: Discourse Analysis, Mood structure, Oprah Winfrey, Probes,
Rhetorical questions.
1. Introduction
The mood structures indicate how speakers and listeners, and writers and
readers, use language for expressing themselves in verbal exchanges. This
implies that mood structures in speech reflect interactional or interpersonal
meanings. In other words, the speaker or writer can choose between
declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences and also decide whether
to front the subject or the finite according to the “type of exchange going on,
the roles of the participants and attitude and judgment of the speaker”
(Opara 2005, 51). The choice of each of these moods (i.e. declarative
interrogative, imperative) involves further choice to be made, for instance,
the choice of representing or not representing the subject. The choice of
each of these moods involves further choices to be made, the interrogative
mood demands further choice between yes/no questions, wh questions and
so on (Opara 2005). Quirk et al. (1985, 179) define questions as “a
semantic class, which is mainly used to seek information on a specific
171
point.” This function of information seeking reflexes in complexity of
sentences, length of utterances and use of paraphrase. Additionally,
indirectedness and amount of talk questions are among strategies that have
been registered to reflect the relationships between speakers.
This article examines a meaningful part from the interview of Oprah
Winfrey with Queen Rania of Jordan, dated on May 17, 2006. The aim of
this article is to investigate the type of sentences used by Oprah throughout
her conversation with Queen Rania of Jordan. Addressing the following
questions: what kinds of questions there are in the talk show? What kind of
functional questions are present in the data, what are their functions with
regards to certainty and uncertainty?
2.
Functional categories of questions
Questions in talk shows are generally related to the purpose of interaction,
which can be to challenge, comment, accept, reject, or evaluate ideas and
opinions. The basis of this classification is according to their function in
interaction. The functional categories of questions are based on the
questions’ functions in interaction, which can be categorized into standard
questions and non-standard questions. Non-standard questions are “those,
that do not exhibit a primarily answer eliciting or information eliciting
functions” (Ilie 1999, 979). Ilie in her books (1999) and (1994) suggests that
such questions are expository questions, rhetorical questions and echo
questions, which can, however, co-occur or overlap with each other. Echo
questions are considered as one, among different types of probes, under the
category of probing questions. In this study, only the two types of questions:
Probing questions and Rhetorical questions would be tackled, revealing
their function of certainty and uncertainty.
Probing Questions help to get under the surface of an initial answer.
Having got the interviewee talking, the interviewer can use probing
questions to bring out more detail. While the same questions are asked of
interviewees, the use of probing questions will vary according to the
interviewee’s response particularly useful for encouraging people to
concentrate on specific points, for clarifying uncertainties, testing the
validity of a more general response and seeking evidence. As cited by
Hargie (2010, 144), Stewart and Cash (2008) referred to them as secondary
questions in that they follow on from the main or primary question. They
are ubiquitous, so that in-group discussions some 90 per cent of all
questions asked have been shown to be probes (Hawkins and Power 1999,
251). Once a respondent has given an initial answer, it can be explored
further by using one of the following types of probe: clarification probes;
justification probes; relevance probes; exemplification probes; extension
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probes; accuracy probes; restatement probes; echo probes; nonverbal
probes; consensuses probes; clearing-house probes (Hargie 2010, 144).
Rhetorical questions are actually not questions at all. The one asking a
rhetorical question is not asking for information. Instead, he is using the
questions to communicate information. According to Greenbaum and Quirk
(1990, 240), a rhetorical question is interrogative in structure but has a force
of strong assertion. The speaker does not expect an answer to it or
information because the answer is known to the addresser, who has reason
to assume that it will be inferred by the addressee. Rhetorical question
conveys an evaluation of information assumed to be already known (Ilie
1994, 38). Roberts and Kreuz (1994, 159-163) found that rhetorical
questions are used to emphasize a point, to provoke thought, to clarify an
issue, to show positive and negative emotion, and to manage discourse.
Turner (2002 111-112) suggests that rhetorical questions intent to
indicate different kinds of meaning: an emphasis on the negative or positive
aspect of the statement, the certainty and uncertainty of a speaker, the
speaker’s evaluation of a situation whether favorable or unfavorable etc.
3. Theoretical background
According to Stubbs (1983, 1), discourse is concerned with the organization
of language above the sentence or above the clause and therefore larger
linguistic units such as conversational exchanges. This implies that,
discourse is basically concerned with linguistic structures that are larger
than the boundaries of a sentence or utterance (i.e. conversation), and can be
presented in spoken form, which have definable communicative function.
Fairclough (1992) sketches a three-dimensional framework for
conceiving of and analyzing discourse. The first dimension is discourse-astext i.e. the linguistic features and organization of concrete instances of
discourse. Choices and patterns in vocabulary (e.g. wording, metaphor),
grammar (e.g. transitivity, modality), cohesion (e.g. conjunction, schemata),
and text structure (e.g. episoding, turn-taking system) should be
systematically analyzed. The second dimension is discourse-as-discursivepractice. The third dimension is discourse-as-social-practice. According to
Chouliaraki and Fairclough (1999, 6), Critical Discourse Analysis brings
social science and linguistics, together within a single theoretical and
analytical framework, setting up a dialogue between them. The linguistic
theory referred to here is Systematic Functional Linguistics (SFL). On the
other hand, Systemic functional grammar (SFG) sees language as a source
of meaning. It is functional because it explores language on how language is
used rather than on how language is formed as suggested by Halliday (1985,
6-7) that language is an introduction to functional grammar because the
conceptual framework on which it is based is a functional one rather than a
173
formal one. Systemic functional grammar (SFG) derives from the discussion
of systematic functional linguistics (SFL). SFL is defined as a theory about
language as social process and an analytical methodology, which permits
the detailed and systematic description of language patterns (Eggins 2004,
184).
The mood structure is one of the schemes of functional systemic
linguistics adopted in the present study. Mood structure facilitates our
ability to account for the various options that are available to the speaker in
the use of language (Osisanwo 2003, 31). According to Alo (1998, 55), the
sentence, for example, may be used to approve or disapprove, to express
doubt (uncertainty), to ask questions or give answers; to greet, instruct, or to
command others; to include others within the social group or to exclude
others from it and these various uses or functions of the sentence correspond
to grammatical categories.
We adopted M.A.K Halliday’s (1985) systemic functional linguistics as
the theoretical model for the study, in view of its emphasis on the
correlation between form and function, focusing on the form and the
function of questions. The different type of questions employed by Oprah
such as probing including confirming, clarifying, exemplification, nonverbal
probes, echo probes, accuracy probes, exploring points and emotional
questions as well rhetorical and multiple questions have also been analyzed.
4. Analysis and Result
The analysis of the dialogue explores the mood structure (different type of
questions: probing and rhetorical questions).
Oprah used questioning utterances including facts based on different
discussed topics. This is influenced by her role in the program as the host
whose main job is mediating the audiences and guests as the source of
information. Questions asked during the interviews are part of the
interaction and therefore cannot be interpreted apart from the analysis of the
interview itself and, as Penz (1996) and Ilie (1999) suggest that questions in
a context of talk shows are not restricted to interrogative forms only.
In fact Oprah used an interesting way in asking questions where she
makes some of the questions in a declarative mood structure which is
according to Thompson (2004, 54) is an interesting phenomenon in a real
language use. This shows us that to ask a question, Oprah does not use or
stick only to interrogative mood structure. She uses another mood, which is
declarative, with a certain tone, as a way to ask for certain information from
her interlocutor. As for interrogative mood structure, we find that Oprah
uses two types of questionings. Those types of questions are probing
questions and rhetorical questions. Probing questions are follow-up
questions designed to encourage respondents to expend upon initial
174
responses. The key successful in interviewing is learning how to probe,
which Oprah Winfrey as a host is a master in it.
Throughout her interview, Oprah uses some types of probing questions
such as confirming, clarifying, exemplification, nonverbal probes, echo
probes, accuracy probes and exploring points. By confirming, she uses
certain word like “really?” to make sure that what she asks is right.
Clarifying is used to elicit a clear, more concisely phrased response in
situation where the questioner is either confused or uncertain about the
content or meaning of the initial responses. Since, an important purpose in
this case is to obtain more details; the reason behind naming them as
informational probes (Hargie 2010, 144). As noted by Stewart et al. (2005,
167-168), this type of clarifying questions is motivated by the need to
understand more clearly.
In other words, when Oprah asks whether she is in a right position or
interacting appropriately with her guest as her interlocutor, she comes with
utterances like Do you pray five times a day? Well, I heard that you had
once said being queen is not who I am, it's what I do. Is that true? and also
when Oprah asked about the King , So I heard that your husband, the king,
is--he barbecues? Oprah uses her existing knowledge on the topic and
confirms this to the speaker. This is meant to evaluate her understanding and
at the same time ask for the right information. Oprah’s question acts not
only as a way to confirm or deny something. There is also some uncertainty
in the question and therefore the respondent interprets it as a need for
clarification, as Oprah wants to know if what she heard is true or not.
Throughout watching the video of the episode, it is noticeable that Oprah
is able to use language in such a way that leads her interlocutors to give
detailed answers. Oprah was able to combine her utterances or questions
with certain non-verbal language use like gesture and facial expression. This
use of non-verbal probes seems to be her way in strengthening points she
would like to ask, confirming or clarifying to her guest as the information
source. Included here is the use of appropriate paralanguage to accompany
expressions such as yeah, with inquisitive nonverbal behaviors like a certain
gesture or facial expression, to attract her guests to sharing more detail
information of the topic discussed. Friedman (1978, 147–150) suggests that
the vast majority of the messages communicated are nonverbal as the
estimated amount of information communicated nonverbally ranges
between 65% and 95% of the total messages conveyed.
Oprah also used the exemplification probes, which require responds to
provide, or specific instances of what they mean by what may, at first,
appear to be a rather vague statement (Hargie 2010, 137). Asking for an
example to illustrate a general comment often helps to clarify it and
provides further insight into the thoughts of the respondent, just like when
Oprah asked Queen Rania to give her an example about how she takes away
175
some of the things from her son while they live in a palace, like what? like
what?
Accuracy probes check the correctness of what has just been said. They
are most useful in situations where either it is absolutely vital that the
respondent is certain about the accuracy of response, or where the
questioner knows the correct answer and wishes to give the respondent a
chance to reflect upon an initial response (Hargie 2010, 137), as it was said
in the following lines:
Oprah Winfrey:
Queen Rania :
Oprah Winfrey:
Queen Rania :
How old were you?
Well, at the time I was 29.
You were 29?
Uh-huh, I was 29.
As for echo probes used by Oprah, they are questions that ‘echo’ the words
used by the respondent in the initial response, by repeating these in the
follow up probes (Hargie 2010, 146). Echo questions may also convey an
attitude of surprise and disbelief with regard to the interlocutor’s preceding
utterance as well as emphasizing the speaker’s challenging attitude (Ilie
1999, 980).
Considering the following echo questions from the data:
Oprah Winfrey:
Queen Rania:
Oprah Winfrey:
Queen Rania:
Oprah Winfrey:
Queen Rania:
Oprah Winfrey:
Ok. Tell me this. So what makes you deliriously happy?
Chocolate.
Chocolate? What's your favorite kind, because I've been
on the search for the world's best chocolate.
The darker the better.
The darker the better?
Uh-huh.
And the darker, the better it is for you, too. OK.
Oprah’s echo questions express the host’s disbelief and surprise of the fact
that Queen Rania prefers dark chocolate and for her ‘the darker is better’.
Exploring points are used when Oprah manages to explore the case using
her existing knowledge or information upon the topic being discussed. With
respect to the use of extension probes that are usually uttered to encourage a
respondent to expand upon initial answer by providing further information
pertinent to the topic under discussion (Hargie 2010, 145).
As in Oprah utterance like So what would be--we be most surprised to
see or experience with women if we were to come to your country? Oprah
extends her question by exploring her knowledge on her guest’s experience.
This is done, probably, so that the guest could have a feeling and give more
information, which is important for her audiences.
176
Another interesting feature that is present in the data is the way of asking
questions by using emotional questions. Emotional expression in talk shows
is used in order to create audience involvement. The very format of the
show, which allows the guests to present their personal stories and
experiences, is geared towards the expression of emotion. In addition, the
hosts often topicalise emotions (Penz 1996, 181). Considering the utterance:
But this is interesting, though, because look, I feel that, you know, coming
from my background, being raised poor and poor negro child and all that,
to have risen to where I am in life, sometimes I look around at my life and I
go, Lordy! You know, and I feel--I do feel that my life is a fantasy. Do you?
In this kind of question, Oprah tries to uncover what she and her guest
probably feel about something, as a common feeling they both experienced.
Since Oprah was poor and becomes rich and titled as Queen of media as
well as Queen Rania who was an ordinary girl, and becomes Queen of
Jordan, this change was experienced by both women. Oprah was uncertain
about the Queens ‘answer and feeling, but she expected that Queen Rania
would understand what she feels sometimes like all this does not seem real,
when she said sometimes I look around at my life and I go, Lordy! You
know, and I feel--I do feel that my life is a fantasy. Do you? Apparently,
Queen Rania did share the same experience by answering: It does sometimes
feel surreal. This type of questions can be considered as a case phenomenon
that attracts people attention. Oprah expressed her feelings about what her
life was, describing her childhood as poor, and become what she is now rich
and Queen of media, she feels like this is not real, sometimes I look around
at my life and I go, Lordy! You know, and I feel--I do feel that my life is a
fantasy. Do you?
Another type of questions is used by Oprah called rhetorical questions,
which are not really questions, but statements given in question formats. It
indirectly conveys an assertion or a denial like any statement (Ilie 1999,
978). Rhetorical questions in talk shows are usually used to shape
arguments and influence public opinion. This can happen by defending or
attacking particular points of view or by reaching a shared agreement, rather
than just winning a debate by imposing a particular viewpoint (Ilie 1999,
980).
The rhetorical questions in the following lines reveal a shared agreement,
in addition to Oprah’s assertion statement. Considering the following lines
from the data:
Queen Rania:
Because once she has the education, she can then have
control over her income, she can change her life, she can
have choices. And I truly believe that education—and
when we talk about poverty, in my mind, poverty is a she.
177
Oprah Winfrey:
You know, so many women around the world are just
condemned to a life...
Poverty is a she? Yes.
Even though, Oprah’s rhetorical question is interrogative in structure, it
carries a strong assertion. The example above, a declarative question has a
strong affirmation and stresses a certain point. This strong affirmation
indicates Oprah’s certainty. In other words, the addresser does not only
know the answer but she is also committed to it, since she excludes all other
answers.
Queen Rania:
Oprah Winfrey:
Queen Rania:
Oprah Winfrey:
Yeah. So many women around the world are condemned
to a life of misery, of hopelessness, of no future. And the
most important thing is, you know, when a woman is
educated and her life is improved, then she can improve
the life of her children.
Her entire family. That's why you educate the future, yes.
Mothers are mothers all over the world. They want the
best for their kids.
Mothers are mothers. Kids, yeah.
Oprah questions above function rhetorically in that it elicit no response at
all, but are rather meant to induce or reinforce some kind of awareness in
the addressees. Oprah’s self –response functions rhetorically in that it
reinforces her underlying commitment to the answer that is meant to be
inferred by the addressee. According to Ilie (1994, 39), the addresser’s
actual purpose is to convey this commitment to the specific answer to
rhetorical question. This answer is intended to indicate the addresser’s
commitment to an opinion or an idea about facts supposed to be known by
the addressee. The addresser’s expectation is for the addressee to recognize
and agree with this commitment. Moreover, rhetorical questions in the data
are indicated shared agreement as both Oprah and the Queen gained
agreement with each other as Oprah agreed on what the Queen said and
vice-versa.
Oprah expressed positive attitude towards educating women:
Oprah Winfrey: You know, I believe in educating girls, too. And I love
your—I quote you all the time when you say educating a girl, you educate
the future.
Queen Rania replied: Absolutely.
Then Oprah confirms her agreement by saying yes.
Then Queen Rania proceeded: And one of the most important things that
you can do for a girl is to empower her with her education.
178
Despite the difference between Queen Rania who is from Jordan and a
Muslim, and the host Queen Rania and the audiences which is an
Americans, the similarity of culture was established in the value of
education, which this latter was a common value reflected in their
conversation, as the addresser intends to instill a sense of mutual
understanding and trust by pointing to commonly shared values and values
(Ilie 1994, 53).
Another positive attitude which reflects the similarity of culture as well
and agreement is shown in the following lines:
Queen Rania :
Oprah Winfrey:
Yeah. So many women around the world are condemned
to a life of misery, of hopelessness, of no future. And the
most important thing is, you know, when a woman is
educated and her life is improved, then she can improve
the life of her children.
Her entire family. That’s why you educate the future, yes.
As it is seen both women shared the same education value ‘educating the
girl’.
Considering the following lines:
Queen Rania:
Oprah Winfrey:
Mothers are mothers all over the world. They want the
best for their kids.
Mothers are mothers. Kids, yeah.
These lines reflect similarity universality in values, as it is therefore
assumed that the basic building blocks of ideologies are sociocultural
values, such as equality, justice, truth or efficiency. Typically, such values
are not limited to specific groups, but have broader cultural relevance. This
means that they may be culturally specific and culturally variable, although
some values may be universal (Hofstede, 1980). Oprah and Queen Rania
had the same universal values regarding mothers and kids Mothers are
mothers. Kids.
Multiple questions consist of two or more questions in a sequence.
Investigating the conversation suggests that Oprah uses her time asking
questions to her guest. Oprah uses various ways of digging more
information from among them the multiple questions.
Linke (as cited in Penz 1996, 132) distinguishes two types of multiple
questions. The first type addresses the same topic but refers to its different
aspects and therefore requires different topical focuses in the answer. An
example of this is in the following lines:
179
Oprah Winfrey:
So you would stop in the middle of the day where you
are—wherever you are and have a prayer? So what are
the times?
In the second type, the questions may be related in terms of content but the
first question is more open-ended and general and the following question is
more restricting. An example of this type of question:
Oprah Winfrey:
That’s a wonderful quote. So how do you give a strong
value system when you have everything? How do you do
that?
Linke (as cited in Penz 1996, 133) argues that multiple questions are
restricting because it makes possible to narrow down the possible range of
answers. Therefore, multiple questions are an important tool of topic
control, and conversation channeling in talk shows.
However, Penz (1996, 134) notes that the addressee may avoid giving
specific information asked in the second question and stress, for example
another aspect of the second question or just concentrate on the first part of
the question as illustrated in Queen Rania ‘s answer:
Queen Rania:
You try to take away some of those things.
This strategy gives a choice of answers to the respondent. Moreover, this
type of questions asked by Oprah shows that she is very selective in using
words. She is able to explore more details of the issues under discussion.
5. Conclusion
The questions presented in this study are typical to the talk show; however,
there are no specific question patterns for interview. In other words,
different types of questions are asked during the interview and there is no
specific question pattern that is followed.
Different types of questions are used by the host during the interview.
Questions in talk show interaction have two functions. The first function of
certain type of questions is to express certainty or uncertainty, i.e. rhetorical
and emotional questions and clarifying probes. The second function of
questions in talk show interviews is to channel the conversation within
episode, i.e. the host may confirm information, ask for clarification,
specification, invite more collaborative answers from the guest.
Oprah Winfrey revealed, an interesting fact represented by her ability in
integrating words and non-verbal language, which made her successful
enough in conversing and gaining more information from her guest as
180
source of information. Oprah’s choice of mood and types of questions bring
the dialogue into a dynamic interchange during the progress of the dialogue
itself.
References
Alo, Moses. 1998. Style in Language and Communication. Port-Harcourt:
Aeddy Link.
Chouliaraki, Lilie, and Norman Fairclough. 1999. Rethinking Critical
Discourse Analysis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Eggins, Suzanne. 2004. An introduction to systemic functional linguistics.
London: Continuum.
Fairclough, Norman. 1992. “Discourse and Text: Linguistics and
intertextual analysis within discourse analysis.” Discourse and
Society 3 (2): 193-217.
Friedman, S. Howard. 1978. “The relative strength of verbal versus
nonverbal cues.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
4:147–150.
Greenbaum, Sidney, and Randol Quirk. 1990. A student’s grammar of the
English language. Essex: Longman Group. UK Limited.
Halliday, Michael A. Kirkwood. 1985. An Introduction to Functional
Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.
Hargie, Owen. 2010. Skilled interpersonal communication: Research,
Theory and Practice. London: Rutledge.
Hawkins, Katherine, and Christopher B. Power. 1999. “Gender differences
in questions asked during small decision-making group
discussions.” Small Group Research 30: 235- 256.
Hofstede, Geert. 1980. Culture's Consequences: International Differences in
Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Ilie, Cornelia. 1994. What Else Can I Tell You? A Pragmatic Study of
English Rhetorical Questions as Discursive and Argumentative
Acts. Stockholm: Graphic Systems AB.
Ilie, Cornelia. 1999.“Question-response argumentation in talk shows.”
Journal of Pragmatics 31: 975-999.
Opara, S. C. 2005. “Mood structures in selected clauses of Buchi
Emecheta’s Second Class Citizen.” In Perspectives on language
and literature, ed. by Olateju, Moji and Oyeleye, Lekan, 51-119 Ile
Ife: Obafemi Awolowo, University Press.
Osisanwo, Wale. 2003. Introduction to Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics.
Lagos: Femous-Fetop Publishers.
Penz, Hermine. 1996. Language and control in American TV Talk Shows:
An Analysis of Linguistic Strategies. Tübingen: Narr.
181
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey N. Leech, and Jan Svartvik.
1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. New
York: Longman.
Roberts. M. Richard, and Roger J. Kreuz. 1994. “Why do people use
figurative language?” Psychological Science 5: 159-163.
Stewart, Charles. J. and, William B. Cash. 2008. Interviewing: Principles
and practices. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stewart, John., Karin E. Zediker, and Saskia Witteborn. 2005. Together:
Communicating Interpersonally, 6th ed. Los Angeles, CA:
Roxbury.
Stubbs, Micheal. 1983. Discourse Analysis: The Sociolinguistic Analysis of
Natural Language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Thompson, Geoff. 2004. Introducing Functional Grammar. New York:
Oxford University Press Inc.
Turner, V. Charles. 2002. The Biblical Basis for Bible Translating With an
Introduction to Semantics And Applications Made to Bible
Translation Principles and Problems. USA: Lighting Source, Inc.
182
Chapter 4
L1 and L2
183
Measuring something that cannot be grasped.
Reflections about Methodology in Elicitation of
Spoken Competence
Sabine Hoffmann
University of Calabria, Italy
sabine.hoffmann@unical.it
Abstract
The focus of this article is on reflections about methodology and the
methodical choices in empirical research into the role of consciousness in
the acquisition of spoken competence in German as second or third foreign
language. Seeing language as a complex, dynamic system, I want to show
how learning fluctuates. I would like to demonstrate that there is a
continuous fluctuation between nonlinearity and stability which depends on
particular driving forces. These forces have to be captured by methods
whose aim is to increase the certainty of data. These reflections were proved
by a case that wants to demonstrate how a multi-methodical approach works
in this direction.
Keywords: Spoken competence in German, consciousness in the acquisition
of a second or third foreign language, dynamic systems theories, multimethodical approach
1. Some considerations about methods in foreign language acquisition
research
Foreign language learning is a dynamic construct which shares different
process levels (Grotjahn 2006, 248), leading to a different degree of
certainty in the learning result. This can be calculated on the basis of how
accurately the interacting forces have been detected in the course of learning
and to what extent one can set the learning outcomes in this relationship.
Nevertheless, some precariousness is always linked to any result of any
research, as dynamic systems theories have made increasingly clear in
recent years (de Bot et al. 2005, 14 and the following pages; Dörnyei 2009,
99 and the following pages; Ellis 2008; Thelen and Bates 2003, 388). These
theories originated in biology and, passing through social and cognitive
science research, have entered the field of foreign languages. These
approaches could be described by their non-linearity and self-organization
184
(Dörnyei 2009, 105; van Geert 2008, 188), in which the items constantly
find a new balance: “dynamic systems is not a specific theory but a general
view on change, change in complex systems, in particular, or, systems
consisting of many interacting components, the properties of which can
change over the course of time” (van Geert 2008, 183).
Basically, everything that contributes to the development of this system
can not be predicted, but creates itself anew in a continuum of static and
dynamic moments. Such models were first developed for L1 acquisition,
and then attempts were made to use the idea of dynamic systems as
explanations in foreign language learning (Schmidt 2010, 812 and the
following pages). It should be remembered, however, that in contrast to L1,
such a complex interaction acquisition is subject to a different dynamic
when learning a foreign language, because the frequency of the stimuli,
which acts as a major driving force for the processes engendered by
interaction, is expected to be smaller. It is also reasonable to suppose that
there are not only unconscious associative processes, but also information
processing mechanisms that are stored consciously and successively.
But even if these approaches have provided no theory for foreign
language research so far and to operationalize them is certainly a serious
challenge for empirical research, they challenged the (linear) principle of
“cause and effect”, which has dominated the development of different
models of language research. In their attempt to substantiate the
multidimensional nature of human learning theory (Dörnyei 2009, 210),
they have shaken up the methodological lines to learning processes that can
be increasingly difficult to grasp.
What does this mean for the methodological approach in current
empirical language research? As indicated above, foreign language learning
processes can not be reduced to unconscious associative processes. They
also contain more or less pronounced conscious linear processing and
retrieval procedures. Here, however, it is necessary to show how the
learning phases are constituted by dynamic and static moments. In the
opinion of Dörnyei, in order to grasp these learning dynamics, longitudinal
qualitative studies are appropriate (Dörnyei 2009, 81, 109 and the following
page; see also Norris and Ortega 2003, 733, 747; Marschollek 2002, 127).
Furthermore, more flexible methodological procedures like “hybrid
methodology” are needed, too (Riemer 2007, 450).
The focus on conscious learning processes leads to especially intro- and
retrospective methods, which also have the potential to demonstrate a clear
dependence on conscious and unconscious processes of emotional states.
For external monitoring of the learning process, videographies are suitable
and should preferably be used in a natural classroom situation (see Mackey
2006), because partly conscious or pre-intentional factors, doubts or/and
inhibitions come to light in action, factors to which the learner, as a
reflexive subject, has only limited access. While videographies and the
185
intro- and retrospective methods quite accurately reflect the oscillation
between dynamic and static moments, a language assessment is used to
check the learning outcome. This assessment is a static moment in the
overall learning process, and it needs to be situated in the “right” place in
the learning flow and has to be must be considered in connection to other
emerging elements.
2. Studies on the acquisition of spoken competence
One complicating factor in the study of orality in foreign language learning
consists in the problem of objectivity, mainly because of the complexity of
the evaluative process. First, both receptive and productive competences
are part of communication. Secondly, there is no other type of assessment
where external factors play such an important role as in testing oral foreign
language performance.
In addition to appearance, voice, interaction patterns and so on of the
examined but also of the examining person, which significantly influence
the result, a variety of personal characteristics have to be added. You learn
to speak by speaking, so different people speak differently. Some people
love to talk while others do not. Some people speak quickly, use more or
less non-verbal forms of communication, intentional or not, while others
suffer from speech anxiety or, on the contrary, enjoy testing situations. Also,
with respect to the specific countries, there are significant differences in
how people are accustomed to being tested. In view of these uncertainties,
Lennon (2000, 165) suggests that “there probably is no single or monolithic
oral skill, but each linguistic performance depends on different variables
like situation, interlocutor, communicative goal”. That makes it clear that
even the static level is not as static as we previously supposed.
The same question exists for the elaboration of data. We require finemesh methods for the reprocessing of visual and verbal data. The way in
which differentiated pause lengths, volume, stress, acceleration of the
rhythm, nonverbal communication, actions and so on are noted in the
transcripts makes the difference in the following steps of the data analysis
(Heine and Schramm 2007, 181, 189, 225; Göbel 2010; Dittmar 2009). On
the other hand, it is true that transcribing recorded speech requires a lot of
time and energy. Hence, every researcher has to evaluate and measure the
effort in relation to the research that he or she wants to carry out.
186
3. Research project1
The research project I conducted for my Habilitation aimed at examining
the role of awareness in oral competence in German as a second or third
language in adult Italians. It was based on the following presupposition:
adult learners employ, partly and with individual differences, conscious and
interest-oriented processing and retrieval processes (also in speaking, which
is apparently the skill with the most implicit learning), which could be
differentiated into “deliberately consciously”, in “starting routine”
(conscious and associative processes) and in “progressive automation”
(reinforced associative processes). For my empirical study I used a model
which was inspired by the Rubicon model (Heckhausen 1987, 1989) and
incorporated the noticing hypothesis of Richard W. Schmidt (1990, 1993,
2001 and others) to reveal the interest-focused and conscious parts of the
foreign language learning process.
The study was conducted at the Goethe Institute in Palermo from October
2010 to June 2011. Eighteen students (10 in the experimental group – EG and 8 in the comparison group - CG) attended two B1-level courses and
were awarded a "Certificate of German" after an exam. I used an
exploratory-interpretive longitudinal study with a qualitative cut and
quantifiable measures in the measurement phase. In both groups I used a
questionnaire to study students’ interest (FB) in learning German, then a
language assessment (SSE) for oral speech, which was the primary learning
objective as emerged from the survey of the students’ needs. The SSE was
repeated at the end of the course and six weeks later in the two groups. An
expert interview (EI) was also conducted. In the experimental group, a
language learning consultancy (LB) took place three times during the course
and the students documented it by keeping a learning diary (TB). The
experimental group’s lessons were video recorded for four months. The
transcription of the audio recordings of the language learning consultancy
was limited to word- and content-faithful reproduction of standard Italian
language. The video recordings were made together with my participant
observation of the same learning lessons recorded (see Schwab 2009, 122).
The workup of selected units of visual speech data used the basic version of
GAT 2 (Selting et al. 2009). The comparison group was not used for the
verification of data in this research design, but represents a complementary
methodology, thereby increasing the internal validity of the study.
The following case aims at demonstrating how each method interacts,
first in terms of the interplay of dynamic and static moments in observable
learning behavior (instruction recordings) and unobservable processes
1
The complete research is documented in Hoffmann (in press).
187
(language learning counseling), then in terms of the learning product
(language assessment).
Liliana is a self-employed, 30-year-old woman, who has already attended
several German courses, both at the Goethe Institute in Palermo and in
Germany, where she stayed as part of the Erasmus program. She discovered
by chance at one point of her life that she was interested in learning German
(according to the information she provided in the questionnaire), and she
continues to study German because she is still amused that her Italian
friends don’t understand her when she speaks German with native speakers
of German. However, she does hope to have better opportunities in the job
market if she speaks German. She believes that German is learned basically
the same way as other languages: a learning method, characterized by
imitating and repeating, which benefits the most from the language input
given:
[…] certo poi a scuola l’inglese c’erano brani scritti da leggere e da
comprendere, però per quanto riguarda me apprendo di più oralmente,
ma tutto comune, pure le materie giuridiche, cioè apprendo di più quando
mi si racconta qualche cosa, io poi la memorizzo nel momento in cui mi
viene raccontata e detta anche una parola utilizzata e mi rimane, più che
leggerla. (LB 1/22)
As she explained during the language learning consultancy, her approach to
language learning is connected to speaking frequently, which seems tailored
to Liliana who has not only a good auditory skill but also a good visual
memory, in addition to being very communicative. When asked about the
disadvantages of her learning method, she mentioned she has ortografic and
grammatical uncertainties that have accompanied her from the very
beginning of her study of German, but are also present in her native speech
(as evident in the video). She forgets grammar faster than words. Her
problems with grammar are identified in the first consultation meeting and
formulated as an improvement project. The (only) two entries in her diary
between the first and second consultation report that she did only a few
grammar exercises because of time problems. What is conspicuous is the
contrast she noted between the rapid comprehension of a text, "guessing"
the correct answers, and not remembering the gender of nouns and the verbpreposition compounds.
In the second consultation she justified the fact that she did not do what
we had agreed upon together by saying she did not have enough time.
Liliana clarified that the gaps in her knowledge do not relate to the
knowledge of rules (which she knows), as emerges in classroom discussions
when, for example, grammar rules are formulated. Hers is a cognitive
problem on the declarative level: for example, that "Auto" is neuter or that
the participle of "kommen" is not "gekommt":
188
01
K2
das ist jetzt vergangenheit. genau.
02
L
er sagt dass er in unsere wohnung ähm ge (.) kommt habe no
((asking help
she looks in direction of Sandra)) gekommt (.) sei;
03
K
gekommt?
04
B
gekommen.
05
L
gekommen sei.
06
K
okay.
Video 1/Liliana 16
Two weeks later, as part of an exercise of the passive form:
01
K
und liliana machst du weiter,
02
L
das MIkrofon muss hm ge getest werden.
03
K
wie ist das partizip von testen?
04
C
getestet.
05
L
getestet- ((quietly, while she is nodding and writing))
06
K
ja, getestet.
Video 3a/Liliana 10
In neither sequence is the request followed by self-correction. Rather, the
participle is suggested by a classmate. It is surprising that it was not Liliana
who provided the participle, considering the fact that Liliana had done quite
a few basic courses and the verbs have been used frequently. In the
following sequence, uncertainties about forming the past tense of “sagen”
also come to light:
01
K
so jetzt zur frage von liliana.
02
L
ich hab wiederholen?
03
K
kannst du nochmal fragen? genau.
04
L
was passiert, wenn ich habe er äh mit präteritum im hauptsatz
so er s äh weiß
es ich nicht präteritum er sagt- ((she
looks around in the class))
05
S
er kam.
06
L
nein die frage07
K
also die frage, was passiert wenn ich hier (.) im hauptsatz
kein präsens habe,
sondern vergangenheit.
Video 1/Liliana 19
2
K = teacher of the course, L = Liliana, B = Bettina, C = Claudia, S = Sandra.
189
When Liliana encounters difficulties, she looks around the class for help.
Apparently, she wants to leave the action to others and we can observe her
unwillingness to produce the answer herself when reflection is needed. In
the first meeting of the language learning consultancy, I talked about this
episode and I ask her to tell me if she had found the correct form with the
help of her knowledge of rules:
19
H
20
L
LB 2/19-20
[ […]du probierst es, und dann wendest du dabei
vielleicht Regeln an, weil du gekommt gesagt hast und
dann bei gekommen landest […]
(Hm, ja, da kommt n hin.)
Her response, however, indicates that she remembered the participle form as
a word, without any reference to rules of grammar. In order for her to
incorporate her knowledge of grammar into her speech, she must make a
greater effort, because her knowledge gaps are the result of the ways in
which she has worked in the past. Liliana is well aware of this:
In generale, ho capito, sì, no, no, secondo me sono stati utilissimi, anzi
mi hanno fatto riflettere sul fatto che effettivamente se voglio utilizzare il
tedesco nel mio lavoro futuro dovrei proprio, diciamo, approfondirlo
bene, nel senso riuscire a parlarlo in maniera abbastanza corretta con un
cliente, perché se mi dovesse capire qualcuno che è tedesco, se, di sicuro
ha difficoltà a capirmi se sbaglio tutti i casi, non metto la desinenza
giusta o una preposizione giusta, se sbaglio preposizione cambio il senso,
quindi ho capito questo sicuramente, che se dovessi vedere in futuro che
mi dovesse servire proprio fare il tedesco per lavoro lo approfondirei in
maniera molto più seria, tipo non so, fare i lezioni private, forse non
andrei al corso, ma per problemi di tempo, e farei una cosa proprio più
mirata, anche un mese in Germania, lezioni private, qualcosa di proprio
massiccio, più (LB 3/20).
In her list of methods for “more serious learning” Liliana does not mention
the fact that she needs to recognize that learning implies effort if she wants
to acquire a certain knowledge. She agreed, at least in the language learning
consultancy, that there are ways to change her learning habits:
Questo sì, sì, a voglia. E ho capito che ci sono i metodi per farlo, io
pensavo sempre che ho imparato oramai le cose in maniera sbagliata non
le posso correggere, cioè nel senso le ho imparate male e non posso
correggerle e invece no, si può correggerle, basta pensarci (LB 3/28).
190
In the case of Liliana, clearly the principle of fun while learning German is
overwhelming, despite the fact that she admitted her weakness, as I
mentioned above. What Liliana shows is a functional access to language
learning, which was already expressed in the first language learning
consultation. This approach includes active and attentive classroom
participation, which the student feels is comfortable and not exhausting.
Liliana relies primarily on implicit storage and retrieval of knowledge,
simply by being very attentive in class and taking advantage of the
frequency of input and output. The resulting learning flow freezes as soon as
she meets grammatical difficulties, as confirmed by the teacher of the
course:
Fehler sind da und werden wohl auch immer und ewig bleiben. Großen
Wortschatz, tollen Wortschatz, viele idiomatische Ausdrücke (33.31). Sie
ist sehr bereichernd für die Gruppe (33.52), ohne auf diese Druck
auszuüben, vielleicht auch, weil sie nicht so perfektionistisch ist. Sie hat
Spaß an der Sache, macht Fehler, was aber für sie kein Problem darstellt.
(EI)
The language assessment 3 , however, reveals another dimension of her
learning action:
SSE
communicatio
n skills
Task
management
correctness
pronunciatio
n
Tot.
1.
2
2
1,5
3
8,5
2.
3,25 (+1,25)
3,25 (+1,25)
2,75 (+1,25)
3
12,25
(+ 3,75)
3.
4 (+0,75/+ 2)
4 (+0,75/+ 2)
3,75 (+1/+2,25)
3
14,75
(+2,5/ +6,25)
Table 1
3
The oral language proficiency test is the same of the ZD test at the Goethe Institute. The
criteria are: communication skills (content-and addressee-oriented language, vocabulary,
realizing speech intentions), task management (participation, use of strategies, fluency),
formal correctness (syntax, morphology) and pronunciation and intonation; their
assessment is based on a 4-point scale (3-point scale in the pronunciation/ intonation part of
the test).
191
The three tests (see table 1) confirmed a continuous and significant
improvement of speaking skills (+6,25). In pronunciation, the student
achieved the highest score in the first test; in the other three areas, she
makes a significant improvement (+1,25) during the course year, which is
also repeated in the post-test with a slight weakening (+0,75 / +0,75 / +1).
The most significant increase is noted in formal correctness (+2,25). She is
visibly concentrated on making as few mistakes as possible, especially in
the third test, but which in no way has a negative effects on fluency. During
the test, she focuses her attention particularly on her main difficulties. We
can see that she has learned more than what is possible to assess or detect
through the methods of my research. It seems that in the classroom, which
for her was a place for fun, she usually avoided making an effort which,
instead, she made at the moment of testing.
4. Discussion
Foreign language learning consultancy and diaries provide information
about the unobservable level of learning events and are supplemented by
video testimonies and interviews with experts on the observable action
level. These methods offer access to triangulate dynamic moments in the
course of her learning experience, whereas static moments are documented
in the form of language assessment. In the case of Liliana, consideration of
these various methods is very complex, because the results which emerged
in the language test can not be confirmed either in the classroom video or in
the interview with the expert, and only partially by the introspective data.
The different degrees of effort that she put into learning shows the nonlinearity of the learning process. Her good performance in the testing
situation derived from additional effort, translating into action what she had
recognized during the language learning consultancy, perhaps also from
partially implicit action operations that can not be measured by the
methodology used in the present research project.
5. Conclusion
The case example shows that the results of testing a language level are far
from clear and, indeed, do not mark a static moment but must be interpreted
as movable elements in the learning flow with the help of other data. This
makes it clear that you cannot assign certain methods for dynamic moments
and others for static ones.
However, the data also point out that even if the interaction of various
factors create a learning flow, it does not resemble an aimless drifting: in
foreign language learning, tracks are quite recognizable and also
192
predictable. The more successful the interplay of methods, the greater
significance of data will be. That is the only way to obtain more certainty in
the uncertainty of the learning process.
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Vagueness, uncertainty, certainty.
Reflections on native and non-native speakers
Sabrina Machetti
University for Foreigners of Siena (Italy)
machetti@unistrasi.it
Abstract
The paper aims at discussing the notion of vagueness and the relationship
among vagueness, certainty, uncertainty. First of all, we refer to Peirce’s
definition of vague proposition, the works of Bühler and Wittgenstein on
uncertainty and certainty, and De Mauro’s definition of vagueness. The
‘banks’ of vagueness - grammar, epi-linguistic use of words and phrases,
possibility to re-define the area of use of the words – are analyzed. The
second part of this paper is dedicated to the analysis of the strategies of
vagueness on the pragmatic dimension of language and the connection that
vagueness sets with uncertainty and certainty. Based on a corpus of spoken
Italian as FL, the analysis shows the dominance of the epi-linguistic use.
Keywords: Vagueness, uncertainty, certainty, epi-linguistic use
1. Introduction
Our paper aims at analyzing the relationships between vagueness,
uncertainty and certainty. We could define vagueness as a generally
semiotic characteristic that also affects natural languages, and uncertainty
and certainty as effects of vagueness. Our analysis starts from the beginning
of the last century, and aims at reviewing the theoretical debate within the
language sciences, in particular in linguistics and semiotics. From this point
of view, the analysis shows a certain degree of originality, due to the
absence within the language sciences of previous research focused on this
subject, as well as of theories of vagueness as a generally semiotic
characteristic. The second part of our paper aims at considering the
relationship among vagueness, uncertainty and certainty applied to the
semiotic processes of meaning production, transmission and negotiation.
The analysis focuses on natural language, in particular on spoken
interactions between native and non-native Italian speakers, and aims at
showing how the balance between vagueness, uncertainty and certainty
plays a crucial role in the effectiveness of communication.
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2. Vagueness, uncertainty, certainty: a semiotic perspective
Vagueness is a general semiotic characteristic that affects not only natural
languages but also other communication systems. In natural languages,
vagueness is the condition for ‘non-regular creativity’, offering the
possibility to constantly open up to innovation, precisely because vagueness
can violate or even change the 'normal' linguistic rules (Machetti 2006). In
this sense, vagueness is also a good condition for the generation and
negotiation of meaning and for the effectiveness of communication. In this
regard, vagueness is constantly interacting with certainty and uncertainty, as
effects of vagueness. Linguistic vagueness makes it impossible to “decide
on the basis of formal considerations if an expression, when we know both
the referent and the expression, is always applicable or not to the referent”
(De Mauro 1982, 99). However, vagueness is a characteristic of linguistic
signs, and not merely a semantic characteristic, and involves both the
signifier and the signified. Paraphrasing De Mauro (1982), each sign does
not set an exact limit on a class of expressions, indicating the terms of a
limited class with the same precision, but it is the tool for an allusion, a
game that leads us to evaluate an expression in relation to others and to a
group of similar meanings. In these circumstances, it is obvious that the
vagueness of the linguistic sign - the signifier and the signified, as well as its
boundaries - requires the intervention of users/speakers. The objective is to
manage uncertainty and avoid the risk of incomprehension. Vagueness can
correspond to a permanent availability of innovation, but at the same time, it
requires the continuous renewal of agreement between language
users/speakers. First of all, the updating begins at the moment of production,
reception and negotiation of each signs, in a process of continuous interplay
between producers and receivers, indicated as ‘tolerance upon the field’ (De
Mauro 1982). Vagueness is a boundary for uncertainty, but it does not
correspond to the possibility to eliminate uncertainty. The result is a balance
among vagueness, uncertainty and certainty aimed to guarantee the
possibility to use and adapt our language to our various communicative
needs.
3.
Peirce, Bülher and Wittgenstein on vagueness, uncertainty and
certainty
The relationships among vagueness, uncertainty and certainty can be
analyzed from a theoretical point of view, and from a pragmatic perspective.
The problem seems to emerge from the reflection of three twentieth-century
scholars: Peirce, Bülher and Wittgenstein. Linguistic and semiotic studies
196
very often refer to these scholars, but rarely focus on vagueness. Peirce
(1893-1914), in Baldwin’s Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology,
defining “vague propositions”, aims at highlighting their effects:
A proposition is vague where there are possible states of things
concerning which it is intrinsically uncertain whether, had they been
contemplated by the speaker, he would have regarded them as excluded
or allowed by the proposition. By intrinsically uncertain we mean not
uncertain in consequence of any ignorance of the interpreter, but because
the speaker’s habits of language were indeterminate; so that one day he
would regard the proposition as excluding, another as admitting, those
states of things. Yet this must be understood to have reference to what
might be deduced from a perfect knowledge of his state of mind; for it is
precisely because these questions never did, or did not frequently, present
themselves that his habit remained indeterminate (1901, 748).
According to Peirce, there are propositions that refer to borderline
phenomena, a state of affairs that the application of a particular proposition
can neither affirm nor deny; these propositions are vague or uncertain, not
because of speaker’s lack of knowledge, little- or mis-informed about a
particular state of affairs, but because of the uncertainty inherent in some
linguistic habits, destined to remain uncertain. The uncertainty could not be
solved even by an increase in information from the real world. Peirce
expresses a strictly negative judgment towards these propositions: they are
part of everyday language, but that does not mean they can represent an
advantage for speakers.
Karl Bülher (1897-1936) proposes an analysis of language focused on
functions: in this perspective, vagueness has a fundamental role, because it
is linked to pragmatics. In the first part of his theory of language (1934),
Bülher claims that any “act of speaking” operates through “linguistic
representations” leaving in the boundaries of indeterminacy. Indeterminacy
can’t be overcome, except in relation to the ‘obiective possibilities’, as in
every linguistic use (Bülher 1983, 118). In Bülher’s theory, vagueness is a
kind of semantic indeterminacy, and produces a positive uncertainty in
natural language. Vagueness management is a positive process aimed at
“transferring meaning”, rather than an extraordinary event within natural
languages:
Certainly, it’s not indifferent if in a text the word “horse” refers to an
individual or to the zoological species. On the other hand, you can decide
on the basis of morphological rules that this word in Latin or in IndoEuropean languages possesses the article. The sense that the speaker has
in mind or wants to mean can be inferred only if coupled with the context
and conditions of the speaking act. What follows from this? That we, as
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receptors of a speaking act, can grasp the intention of the producer
referring to the context more than through an isolated word (Bülher 1983,
115).
Bülher argues that context and speakers play a fundamental role, serving to
define meaning and control uncertainty. In this sense, vagueness is linked to
linguistic creativity and can reduce the risk of misunderstandings among
speakers, providing the language tools to ensure certainty. If language does
not work through representations, associations between words and referents
broadly characterized by indeterminate meanings, it would be deprived of
what is most surprising and useful. It would miss the amazing ability to
adapt to the inexhaustible richness of what is involved in a specific
linguistic expression (Bülher 1983, 118). Precisely because languages
operate with symbols with many different senses, this fact consequently
involves the need of adjustments of their meaning. On the other hand,
languages must obtain multiple aids.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) has never reflected explicitly on
vagueness, certainty and uncertainty. However, before the Philosophische
Untersuchungen (1953), his suggestions on the indeterminacy of meaning
and the role of speakers in managing uncertainty deal with this relationship.
Many works confirm the accuracy of this reflection:
- Notebooks (1914-1916): the need for clear propositions and definitions,
their truth and their lies, leave the door open to vagueness. Vague situations
and links to vague language are very frequent in the real world. In these
situations, vagueness and uncertainty can be reduced, but we can not
eliminate them completely.
- Big Typescript (1932): In 'Proposition' and 'language' as vanishing
concepts, we can find the first formulation of the concept of 'family
resemblances', as propositions that invoke vague concepts, not determined
by a set of well-defined properties. Speakers can use them with accuracy,
but also with a significant degree of uncertainty, a positive characteristic
that can be reduced but not completely eliminated in natural language.
- Philosophische Grammatik (1929-34): Wittgenstein reflects on the
unknown plurality and diversity linked to the dimension of language use:
every day we use different codes, calculations, different language games,
and this use amplifies the uncertainty and the lack of uniformity.
- Blue Book (1933-1934); Brown Book (1934-1935): Wittgenstein aims at
showing how the word "game", which emphasizes uncertainty, and its
association with "activity" and "form of life" can replace "calculation".
“Game” refers to an indefinite and alternative language use, which leads
simultaneously to different meanings. The meaning of a rule depends on the
way it is used. No rule is definitively the last rule.
- Philosophische Untersuchungen (1953): As shown in the following PU
paragraphs, Wittgenstein reflects on natural language and defines it as a
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game for different purposes. Language is described in relation to use, and
vagueness is a form of uncertainty that assigns innovation and creativity to
linguistic games. The concept of “game” identifies activities with fuzzy
boundaries, with similarities and differences.
491. Not “without language we could not communicate with one another” –
but for sure: without language we cannot influence other people in suchand-such ways; cannot build roads and machines, etc. And also: without the
use of speech and writing people could not communicate.
66. Consider for example the proceedings that we call “games”. I mean
board-games, card-games, ball-games, Olympic games, and so on. What is
common to them all?-Don’t say: “there must be something common, or they
would not be called ‘games’ “ –but look and see whether there is anything
common to all.-For if you look at them you will not see something that is
common to all, but similarities, relationships, and a whole series of them at
that. To repeat: don’t think, but look! [...] As the result of this examination
is: we see a complicated network of similarities overlapping and crisscrossing.
4. Vagueness, uncertainty, certainty: a question of balance
The provision of a theoretical framework enables us to consider vagueness,
certainty and uncertainty as endemic characteristics of natural language. We
can’t eliminate them, and indeed if we did we would be left with a poverty
of language, the limitations of semantics, and the difficulty of adapting to
the varied and new communicative needs of users/speakers. Vagueness is
not synonymous with absolute uncertainty, which would equate with the
collapse of communication. Theoretically, each language user could speak
or write using new, free, unusual words and syntactic rules, but the result
would be incommunicability. Fortunately, natural language is a vague and
fuzzy system which “rules itself” (Zadeh 1969), and provides tools to
balance the risks of “schizophasia” (incomprehensible and meaningless
words, phrases and expressions, De Mauro, Fortuna 1995, 506). These tools
are:
- Grammar: we can anchor the meaning of words and phrases to the here
and now, but also to another time and another place;
- Epi-linguistic use of words and propositions (Petrilli 2009): we can say
words and propositions, quote them and discuss their meaning, questioning
and reflecting, explaining and asking for explanations;
- Possibility to use a language to define the areas of use of a word.
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4. Results
In this part, our aim is to analyze some strategies that vagueness triggers in
spoken interaction between native and non-native speakers. These strategies
affect the outcome of communication, which is heavily dependent on the
implementation of the balancing tools. The examples we discuss here are
drawn from a corpus of spoken Italian as FL – from A1 to C2 level (Barni
and Gallina 2008). The spoken interactions on which we have focused our
attention mainly belong to the levels of autonomy, produced by speakers
that De Mauro (1982) would define as “informed”. These speakers know
and apply the rules and structures of the Italian language independently, like
a native speaker.
First of all, the analysis shows the importance of epi-linguistic use as a
control strategy in the relationship among vagueness, certainty and
uncertainty. Epi-linguistic use contributes to determining meaning and
improving effectiveness of communication. In the following sequence, the
examiner invites the student to provide an explanation. In doing so, he reformulates the question che cosa è successo? (what happened?). The new
question aims at reducing uncertainty and improve the effectiveness of the
communication.
(1)
C: buongiorno sono XY
good morning I’m XY
E: posso aiutarla?
May I help you?
C: io ho un appuntamento
I have an appointment)
E: sì lei aveva un appuntamento con me alle sei alle diciotto e non è
ancora in studio che cosa è successo?
I know, you had an appointment with me at 6, at 6 p.m. and you are not
in my office, what happened?
C: ehm
E: eh ma signora mi telefona alle diciotto e venti per dirmi che alle
diciotto non poteva venire?
You call me at 6.20 to tell me that you could not come at 6 o’clock?
C: [silenzio][silence]
E: cosa è successo di così grave
what happened so serious?
C: ehm [silenzio]
E: cos'è successo di così grave cioè come mai non è venuta non mi ha
avvisato prima?
what happened so serious, I mean why didn’t you come before didn’t
you inform me before?
200
C: perché io ho avuto un impegna impegno e <?> università
because I had something to do at the … university
E: ho capito e allora devo darle devo trovarle un altro appuntamento?
I understand and so I have to find another day for a new appointment?
C: eh sì io vorrei un'altro appuntamento per domani se possibile
Oh yes, I wish another appointment for tomorrow .. if it’s possible
The same use appears in the following sequence, where the examiner tries to
reduce the uncertainty associated with the use of the adjectives “light” and
“sweet” by prompting the candidate to clarify the meaning of these
adjectives. The result is the use of a new adjective (“artistic”), as a strategy
of vagueness management that improves certainty .
(2)
C: eeh vorrei_ avere delle informazioni su_ corsi di ginnastica ginnastica
della vostra palestra
I’d like to have some informations about gymnastic classes at you gym
E: sì
yes
C: vorrei sapere che_ tipi di ginnastica avete fra_ ge<> leggera eeh dolce
I’d like to know what kinds of gymnastic do you offer … light …
gentle
E: leggera dolce?
light … gentle?
C: leggera dolce sì artistica
light gentle yes artistic
E: sì abbiamo diversi corsi eeh ginnastica # artistica soprattutto per_ le i
bambini
Oh yes, we offer many different gymnastic courses artistic in particular
for children
C: ah avete anche dei corsi per i bambini bene?
Do you offer also courses for children right?
E: sì
yes
As a vagueness control strategy, the explicit request of an explanation is
evident in more than one sequence, as in
(3)
C: bene tutto questo è cominciato quando avevo dodici anni andavo alla
scuola al settimo anno della scuola e bene facevano dei corsi della
lingua e ho deciso di di fare qualcuno perché bene i genitori dei miei
201
nonni erano italiani e perciò ho pensato che poteva darsi che al futuro
eeh dovessi eeh potessi ricercare qualcosa riguardo a loro eeh
well all has started when I was twelve I used to go to school in the
seventh grade of the school and well language courses were organized
at school and I decided to attend one of it well because the parents of
my grandparents were Italian and so I thought that it could be possible
that in the future eeh I had to eeh I could investigate something about
them
E: ricercare in che senso?
to investigate in which sense?
C: ricercare riguardo al passato diciamo della mia famiglia eeh anche
perché volevo fare la cittadinanza italiana e perciò avevo bisogno di di
tutta questa informazione eeh ed era più facile de trovarmela tutta in
italiano quindi bene ho cominciato a studiare la lingua e anche per eeh
per ragioni di studio perché al futuro mi piacerebbe studiare in
un'università italiana
to investigate about the past of my family eeh because I wanted to do
Italian citizenship and therefore I needed all of this information and it
was easier eeh to find all in Italian so well I began to study the language
and also eeh for study because in the future I would like to study in an
Italian university
and in
(4)
C: bene quest'anno per&esempio ho avuto l'opportunità di visitare l'Italia
e ho conosciuto molta gente italiana soprattutto i ragazzi e le ragazze e
abbiamo fatto amicizia eeh mi hanno sembrato troppo amichevoli e
anche socievoli
well this year for example I had the opportunity to visit Italy and I met a
lot of people especially Italian boys and girls and we became friends
eeh I guess that they are very friendly and social
E: troppo?
too much?
C: sì
yes
E: troppo?
too much?
C. molto socievoli e amichevoli e bene ancora ci sentiamo via e-mail e
tutti i giorni ricevo qualche notizia di Chiara o di Giorgia e bene e
very friendly ad social and well we keep in touch by e-mail even now
and every day I get some news from Chiara or Giorgia and well and
202
The analysis shows that epi-linguistic use aims at balancing vagueness and
uncertainty not only in spoken interaction but also within monologue
(examiner and student monologue). In sequence 5., the examiner tries to
reduce the vagueness and uncertainty of the student’s speech using
reformulation to determine the meaning:
(5)
C: io sono laureata in musica eeh sono un'insegnante di musica quindi
vorrei fare questo lavoro ma siccome qui in Italia non posso farlo qui
faccio un altro lavoro che non mi non mi interessa troppo però dopo
che ritorniamo in Ungheria vorrei provare eeh l'insegnamento di
musica eeh prima di venire in Italia non ho mai fatto questo lavoro
quindi non so com'è ma lavorare
I have a degree in Music eeh I’m a teacher of music so I want to work
in this field but in Italy I can’t do this work and I do another work that I
don’t care too much when we go back to the Ungary I want to try eeh to
teach music eeh before my arrival to Italy I never did this work so I
don’t know how it is but to work
E: quale lavoro non hai fatto l'insegnamento dici?
what kind of work have you never done teaching you say?
C: sì
yes
E: quindi non sai dire se non sei sicura se ti piacerebbe farlo per tutta la
vita oppure
and so you can’t say if you like to do this work for all the life or
C: sì perché non non ho ancora l'esperienza però vorrei provarlo mi
piacerebbe questo lavoro anche perché in scuola di musica si lavora
nel pomeriggio così la mattina ho tempo
yes because I don’t don’t have any experience but I’d like to try I’d like
this job also because at the music school you work in the afternoon so
in the morning you have free time
E: avresti la possibilità di fare altro di fare qualche altra cosa eeh ma
ritieni che un posto fisso cioè quindi fare un lavoro per tutta la vita può
essere noioso perché ripetitivo perché quindi sarebbe meglio poter
cambiare più volte nella vita tipo di lavoro cosa ne pensi di questo?
Do you have the possibility to do another job another thing eeh but you
think that a regular position I mean do the same job all the life could be
boring because repetitive because it would be better to change job many
times in your life what do you think?
Frequently, epi-linguistic use interacts with other strategies, first and
foremost the re-statement of the uses of a given word and/or proposition, as
in the sequences 6 and 7:
203
(6)
C: mi piacerebbe andare a_ ai Caraibi mi piacerebbe andare ad una isola
colonizzata dai francesi per&esempio la Martinique eeh perché eeh le
isole dei Caraibi sono troppo belle e ci sono eeh molte attività
relazionata al mare come giro in nave tuffo libero e poi palestra
nell'acqua possiamo anche eeh
I’d like to go to the Caribbean I’d like to go to an island from French
colonization for example Martinique eeh because eeh Caribbean islands
are too nice and there are many activities related to the see as ship
around free swim and after gym into the water we can also eeh
(7)
E: scusami cosa intendi per palestra nell'acqua?
sorry, what do you mean with gym into the water?
C: palestra nell'acqua? allenamento fisico nell'acqua
gym into the water? Training in the water
E: ah ginnastica
ah gymnastic
C: ginnastica
gymnastic
E: ho capito sì
I understand yes
5. Conclusion
Data confirm the strong relationship among vagueness, uncertainty,
certainty. This relationship forces the speakers to continuous negotiation of
meanings, and seems to depend on three balance strategies. These strategies
are normal features of spoken and written communication, entirely managed
by language users/speakers, regardless of their language proficiency. The
relationship among vagueness, uncertainty, certainty is not dependent on a
particular context or a particular type of text, but every context and text call
for the need to manage all the three language features.
References
Baldwin, James Mark, 1901. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology II.
London: Macmillan.
Barni, Monica, and Francesca Gallina, 2008. “Il corpus LIPS (Lessico
dell’Italiano parlato da Stranieri: problemi di trattamento delle forme
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e di lemmatizzazione”. In Atti del Convegno Corpora di italiano L2:
tecnologie, metodi, spunti teorici, ed. by C. Andorno, S. Rastelli.
Perugia: Guerra Edizioni.
Bülher, Karl, 1983. Teoria del linguaggio. Roma: Armando Editore.
De Mauro, Tullio, 1982. Minisemantica dei linguaggi non verbali e delle
lingue. Roma-Bari: Laterza.
De Mauro, Tullio, and Sara, Fortuna. 1995. “Eticità e linguaggio”. In Senso
e storia dell’estetica. Studi offerti a Emilio Garroni per il suo
settantesimo compleanno, ed. by Piero Montani. Parma: Pratiche
Editrice.
Machetti, Sabrina. 2006. Uscire dal vago. Analisi linguistica della vaghezza
del linguaggio. Roma-Bari: Laterza.
Petrilli, Raffaella. 2009. Linguaggio e filosofia nella Grecia antica. Tra i
Pitagorici e Aristotele. Roma: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.
Wittegenstein, Ludwig. 1953. Philosophische Untersuchungen, ed. by G. E.
M. Anscombe and R. Rhees with an English translation by G. E. M.
Anscombe. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Wittegenstein, Ludwig. 1958. Preliminary Studies for the «Philosophical
Investigations Generally Knows as The Blue and Brown Books».
Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Wittegenstein, Ludwig. 1961. Notebooks 1914-1916, ed. by G. H. von
Wright and G. E. M. Anscombe whit an English translation by G. E.
M. Anscombe. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Zadeh, Lofti. 1965. “Fuzzy Sets”. Information and Control 8: 338-53.
205
Linguistic Relativity and Universality
of Zero Personal Pronouns
in Rakugo Translation
Rieko Matsuoka, National College of Nursing, Japan
rieko.matsuoka@yahoo.com
Ian Smith, British Council, Tenisia
Abstract
According to linguistic relativity, differences in perspectives on reality often
manifest themselves as specific features in those communities’ language
use. A lack of pronouns or zero-pronouns in Japanese discourse was
revealed while translating rakugo, the traditional Japanese comedy. On a
cognitive level, zero pronouns raise the level of uncertainty, because they
rely on epistemicity, i.e., the ability to understand things on the part of the
interlocutors. This study investigates the meanings of zero personal
pronouns in rakugo on linguistic relativity hypothesis, combined with Hall’s
notion of high-context and low-context societies. Furthermore, how zero
personal pronouns and the Japanese sense of self are related in terms of
seken (life-world) is discussed within the framework of linguistic relativity
and universality.
Keywords: Linguistic relativity, rakugo translation, zero personal pronouns,
low-context society, high-context society, seken (life-world), Japanese sense
of self
1. Introduction
There exists much diversity in linguistic forms in human societies and,
translation is necessary in order to share literary works, as well as scientific
works, among different language users. During the process of translating
culturally-colored discourse, some very important features of a given
society may well be revealed. In this study, a script of rakugo, which is the
traditional Japanese performance art of telling comic stories, is used as the
data for analysis because rakugo can be regarded as a genre of natural,
spoken Japanese discourse.
This study investigates the difficulties caused by differences in the
languages and cultures of Japanese and English, in accordance with
linguistic relativity, using material from a rakugo script. In fact, Katz (as
206
cited in Wardy 2006) suggests that linguistic relativity threatens universal
inter-translatability. In this study, focusing on zero personal pronouns, the
notion of linguistic relativity is examined, closely related to the Japanese
sense of self and the Japanese worldview that includes seken (life-world).
Zero pronouns in Japanese discourse have been investigated before;
however, they have mainly been analysed using centering theory (e.g.,
Nakagawa 1992; Okuyama and Tamura 1996), with no consideration of
linguistic relativity. According to linguistic relativity (e.g., Humboldt 1999;
Sapir 1921/2004), different perspectives on reality often manifest
themselves as specific features of language use in speech communities, and
some empirical studies for examing linguistic relativity have been
conducted, starting with Humboldt’s original research (1999) on the Kawi
language. These differences cause complications in translation because
some words are specific to a particular language and cannot be translated
literally. Translating a culturally-colored script may necessitate the in-depth
examination of given cultures or worldviews, including levels of ‘certainty’
and ‘uncertainty’.
Therefore, the research questions are posited as follows: (1) Under what
circumstances do zero first-person pronouns appear in Japanese? (2) Under
what circumstances do zero second-person pronouns appear in Japanese?
And (3) in what way can zero-person pronouns and the Japanese sense of
self be related? Does linguistic relativity explain this relationship?
2.
Methodology
2.1 Data
The roots of rakugo date back to the end of the 17th century. Rakugo
developed from short tales that were told among common people. The style
of performance of rakugo was established in the late 18th century and has
not changed since then. When some of the early artists discovered that they
could actually make a living as professional story tellers, they would rent a
large room (yose) in a house and sit on a small mattress to perform rakugo.
Rakugo performers are called rakugo-ka (Oshima 2007). Rakugo consists of
the conversations between the characters in the story, and its performers,
rakugo-ka, have to be able to play the role of different characters by
changing their voices, facial expressions and mannerisms (Oshima 1992).
2.1.1 The Script Writer: Sanyuutei-Kyoraku
Sannyuutei-Kyoraku (Kyoraku, hereafter) started to perform rakugo with
English subtitles in 1998. Kyoraku became a rakugo performer in 1988 and
was promoted to being a shinkata, a senior position where one is allowed to
have apprentices, in 1992. He wrote several rakugo scripts focusing on
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social issues related to aging, health problems, cultural sensitivities and the
environment, and has been awarded several prizes. He has also appeared in
newspapers because of his involvement in social welfare activities. The data
used in this study comes from the latest script he has written and it was
performed in several institutions, including Harvard University, in 2006.
2.1.2 The Text
“Himaraya no hokutoshichisei: Septentrion over the Himalayas” is the title
of the rakugo script used in this study. In this story, the main character is a
younger sister who was originally happy-go-lucky and did not like to “get
her hands dirty”, but who changed her outlook on life through her
experiences with some warm-hearted people living at the foot of the
Himalayan Mountains. In the interest of space, the only lines of the text that
are discussed in this study are shown, but the full text with an English
translation is available on request.
3. Theoretical background
3.1 Linguistic Relativity
Based on Humboldt’s argument of internal speech and language that
engenders thought (e.g., Humbollt 1999), Sapir and Whorf established the
hypothesis of linguistic relativity (Lucy 1997). Although the linguistic
relativity hypothesis (Sapir 1921/2004; Whorf 1956) has failed to acquire
sufficient support, as Davies (1998) has pointed out, both theoretical (Slobin
1996, 2003; Lucy 1996) and empirical (Davies 1998; Ozgen and Davies
2002; Wassmann and Dasen 1998; Boronditsky 2001; January and Kako
2007), research has been conducted in order to determine the degree to
which linguistic relativity may apply. As Pinker (1995/2007) has stated, the
notion of language has gained people’s attention, and the relationships
between language, thought, culture, and reality have been of great interest.
Thus, a brief overview of this hypothesis should be provided.
Language vs. culture. Wardy (2006) stated that cultural differences produce
incommensurable conceptual frameworks, because language affects how
people perceive their reality and language coerces thought. Lucy (1992)
explained that language is a reflection of culture, citing Boas, the
predecessor of Sapir, and argued for the psychic unity of mankind and for a
notion of distinct cultures. Boas’ position is reflected in the following three
robust propositions: (1) languages classify experience, (2) different
languages classify experience differently, and (3) linguistic phenomena are
unconscious in character, apparently because of their highly automatic
production. Boas’ essential view is that linguistic classifications reflect, but
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do not dictate thought. Lucy (1997) also argued that language could be a
dependent variable of thought.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Sapir (1921/2004) postulated that language, race,
and culture are not necessarily correlated, but there must be some relation
between language and culture and between language and some intangible
aspect of race, and that language and our thoughts are inextricably
interwoven. Sapir also argued that human beings do not live alone in the
objective world, nor do they live alone in the world of social activity as it is
ordinarily understood. Rather, they are very much at the mercy of the
particular language that has become the medium of expression for their
society (Spier, Hallowell, & Newman 1941). In fact, the “real world” is to a
large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group.
Sapir elaborates on Boas’ arguments and claims we anticipate or read
experience in terms of language categories which, by virtue of their
abstraction and elaboration in the linguistic process, no longer correspond to
experience in a direct way. According to Handler (1986), Sapir saw a
dialectical interaction of creative personalities and cultural forms, and of
expression and tradition, and added that the human mind craves
relationships.
Whorf (1956) extended Sapir’s ideas, based on the work he carried out
with American Indian languages. He suggests that the relationship between
language and culture is not simply based on predisposition but is a
deterministic one. In his view, the world is viewed differently by speakers
of different languages because their languages differ structurally
(Wardhaugh 1986). In Whorf’s view, therefore, language determines how
we perceive and organize the world around us. Whorf argued that language
shapes culture and reflects the individual actions of people. Therefore,
language shapes a person’s view and influences thoughts. People who speak
different languages may perceive reality and think differently, because
categories and distinctions encoded in one language are not necessarily
available in another.
Linguistic determinism vs. linguistic relativity. Boas, Sapir, and Whorf agree
that language is classificatory, isolating, and organizing elements of
experience. Their theory posits that language determines the way people
perceive the world and think, something that is called linguistic
determinism. In the softer version, their theory has been interpreted as
saying that people who speak different languages perceive reality and think
differently, because categories and distinctions encoded in one language are
not necessarily available in another, which is so-called linguistic relativity.
Indeed, this deterministic view of language has been criticized; however,
their theory reflects the nature of language and explains the difficulties that
translation work entails.
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Bloomfield (1923), on the other hand, suggested that we should study
people’s habits of language—the way that people talk—without bothering
about the mental processes that we may conceive of as underlying or
accompanying these habits. Bloomfield adds that Sapir’s presentation deals
with the actualities of language rather than with any hypothetical, mental
phenomena.
Empirical studies. Whorf (1956) argued that language manifests basic
features that impact on human thought. This is based on research into the
Hopi language, for example, into how it treats time. After long, careful
study and analysis, the Hopi language is seen to contain no words,
grammatical forms, constructions, or expressions that refer directly to what
we call “time”, or to the “past”, “present”, or “future”, or to concepts of
being “enduring” or “lasting”. Therefore, Whorf argues, it would be difficult
for a Hopi and an English-speaking physicist to understand each other’s
thinking about time (Carroll, as cited in Spier, Hallowell & Newman, 1941).
As another example, a case study of conditionals by Wardy (2006)
supports Whorfian linguistic relativity. Wardy (2006) concluded that
abstract thought which springs from hypothetical reasoning does not come
easily to Chinese people because of the lack of conditionals in the Chinese
language.
A more recent study about conceptions of time by Boronditsky (2001)
conducted experiments to examine the differences between Mandarin and
English speakers, with results that supported linguistic relativity hypothesis.
However, her research was refuted by January and Kako’s (2007) study,
which replicated Boroditsky’s (2001) study. The discrepancy in their studies
is due to the fact that Borodisky’s participants were native speakers of
English and Mandarin while January and Kako’s were native speakers of
English and bilingual speakers of Mandarin.
In the area of color recognition, Davies (1998) and Ozgen and Davies
(2002) conducted a cross-cultural investigation on language and color
perception and found that some differences exist in color perception
associated with differences in language. Earlier on, Lucy and Shweder
(1979) had presented Whorf’s contribution in their study on color memory.
These studies support linguistic relativity with some universalism.
On the other hand, Lowie (1923) showed how the human mind has
arrived at the same form of expression in two historically unconnected
regions, using the example of some noteworthy parallels between Taklma
and Greek regarding similar morphologies. In the same way, Tatara and
Yagihashi (2007) argued that human recognition of physicality is universal
and is beyond differences in language. Once it has been represented in the
form of language, cultural factors then start to intervene. It is, therefore,
effective to compare cultural constituents as well as linguistic homology
when analyzing humans. By the same token, Pinker (1995/2007) has taken a
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position opposing the notion that language shapes our worldview; instead,
our mind shapes and constructs our language.
3.2 High-Context vs. Low-Context
Hall (1976) dichotomized societies based on the notion of high-context and
low-context. As an example, in a high-context society, such as Japan, very
little is said to be coded in language messages because most of the
information is believed to be already known, whilst in a low-context society,
such as the USA, many more things may have to be explicitly expressed
than would be the case in Japanese. If presuming how much needs to be
uttered is also regarded as a linguistic activity, this concept can be
interpreted as a part of a wider framework of linguistic relativity. Based on
this, the process of translating works between Japanese and English would
require adjustment.
3.3 Seken
Abe (2001) established the notion of seken as a concept of life-world similar
to that postulated by Husserl. Abe (2001) warned that the notion of
individuals in Japan is clearly different from that in Western contexts,
because individuals in Japan need to be viewed in the framework of seken
and, indeed, such individuals cannot be liberated from seken. His definition
of seken focuses on the dynamism among the members of a community,
starting with family members, and he adds that each individual has a
different seken. He also explains that seken is not produced, but is simply
existent wherever you are. Furthermore, he elaborates that in modern
societies we are expected to live where time and space are quantitative, but
in reality we should be aware that our worlds are not so precisely
quantitative, but are subjective. Therefore, we need to admit the fact that we
live in seken, which is a given.
Based on Abe (2001), Sato (2001/2007) elaborated the notion of seken
using some criminal cases in order to indicate how seriously and powerfully
seken has been regarded even in judicial matters. Furthering Abe’s account
of seken, he labels seken as subjectivity in phenomenology. Sato
(2001/2007) also explicated the gravity of seken for Japanese people based
on the fact that even morals and ethics are constructed within the framework
of seken. He suggests that the Japanese do not have a sense of self without
the notion of seken because seken is embedded within each individual,
which is different from the case of westerners. As a result, he warns that the
more individualistic Japanese try to become, the more oppressive they
become.
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3.4 Japanese Sense of Self
Lebra (2004) clarified how the Japanese construct their sense of self, using
opposition logic and contingency logic. Following opposition logic, in the
process of constructing a Western sense of self, subject and object are
sharply differentiated based on the principle of the subject-object
dichotomy. Citing the Geertz definition of the Western self, she explicates
that the Western self is externally bounded in opposition to the other or nonself world, and is internally integrated into a whole with one’s own center.
In contrast to opposition logic, Libra proposes contingency logic, where the
subject and object share the same space. In contingency logic, the way of
looking at the subject and object, or the self and other, there is no self
without the other, an operation that Lebra (2004) named “binding”. She
further discusses the nature of this contingency logic in constructing the
sense of self among the Japanese, as is revealed in their language where
zero personal pronouns are ubiquitous.
4. Results
4.1 First-Person Pronouns
In order to answer research question (1), the portions that include firstperson pronouns were taken from the script. In the original Japanese script,
there are 28 cases (51.8%) of zero first-person pronouns and 26 cases
(48.2%) with explicit first-person pronouns, out of a total of 54 cases. This
means that the first-person pronouns are omitted in more than half the cases
in the given script.
The following is a list of the portions without first-person pronouns:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Nanika norimononi nosetekureruno?
Can I take a ride in some vehicle?
Nande konnanoni nonnnakya ikenainoyo.
Why do I have to do such a thing?
Zutto tanoshimini shitetan desu.
We have looked forward to it for a long time.
Konna yuremakuttennno yadaa.
I do not want to ride on such a jerking vehicle.
Norikaerannakya.
I have to change the vehicle.
Soreja sou shiyou kashira.
In that case, let me do so.
Zutto ofutariga irrassharunowo tanoshimini shiteorimashita.
We looked forward to seeing both of you.
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(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
Hai, wakarimashita.
OK, I understand.
Nee, onaka cho suichatta.
Hey, I am super hungry.
Sonnani isoganakutemo ii to omounn desukeredomo.
I don’t think you have to hurry so much.
Anou, gyuufun dato omoimasu.
Well, I think they are cowpats.
Negaigoto kakemakuritte yatsu…
I make lots of wishes.
Un ima negaigoto shichatta.
Yeah, now I have made my wishes.
Hoshiimono atte.
I wish to have something.
Kore kiniitte moraeruka douka wakaranain desukedo.
I do not know if you like it or not, but...
Dakara ne, imanara ne, nandemo katteagerarerunnda.
So, I can buy you anything.
Ki wo kittara, kanarazu, motonoyouni chiisana ki wo ueteiku.
If we cut a tree, we should plant a seeding.
Soshite sore wo sodatete iku.
Then, we should grow them.
Haitte ii?
May I come in?
Nobotte kite tsukare chatta.
After climbing up, I am tired.
Dakara saa, ammari otoosan tokatte yoku wakannnai dayo ne.
So I don’t know what fathers are.
Mama to oneechan to zutto sanninde kurashite kitajan.
Because I have lived with mum and my sister.
Dakarasaa omoidette ammari nainda yone.
So, I do not have lots of memories.
Demo papaniwa kaoga kaoga omoidasenain daa.
But I don’t recall my Dad’s face.
Itsumo aitakkutte saa.
I do want to see him always.
Aitakutte shouganai noni saa.
I really wish to see him but…
Aitainoni sa, shinjimae nante icchaunnda.
I want to see him but I say, “you should die”.
Choo omoun dakedo ningen igai nomono mo aisanakya ne.
I really think we should also love other things than humans.
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In all the cases above, the English translation includes the first-person
pronouns (underlined). In some cases, the first-person pronouns can be
added in Japanese without changing the meaning in a drastic way (3, 4, 6, 7,
9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27), though the nuance may change a
little. By adding the first-person pronouns, these portions are more assertive
or emphatic. On the other hand, in other cases (1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17,
18, 19, 20, 28), adding explicit first-person pronouns may make the
utterance strange.
The following list shows the portions with explicit first-person pronouns:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
Atashisaa, sakkikara fushigini omottetan dakedo.
I had wondered a while ago.
Moo, atashi sa
Well, I
Moo atashi,
I
Nee, oneechan atashi yadaa moo konnanotte
Hey, sis, I do not like this.
Watashitachi wa zuibun omachi shite itandesu.
We waited long for you.
Watashi, gakkaiga arukara ne.
I will have to attend the conference.
Atashi, mou kaeru
I want to go back.
Atashi kaerumon ne.
I will go back.
Yappari kaeru, Atashii.
Yes, I will go back.
Boku wa izen nihonni, kankyo no benkyo woshini sannen hodo
ryugaku shitakotog arundesuga.
I studied ecology in Japan for three years.
Boku wa gakkouni ittekuru yo.
I will go to school.
Atashi konnani jagaimo gane oishiitte shiranakatta wa.
I did not know potatoes are so delicious.
Boku mo ima kitatokoro desu.
I myself came here just now.
Iyaa atashi saa kono sougen kono nohara konoaida ne maa-chan to
isshoni kita noyo.
Well, I came to this plain, this field, with Maya, the other day.
Atashi daisuki nano.
I love this.
Boku mo desu yo.
I love this, too.
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(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
Watashi, docchikato iuto antano ho akkere kaette, hikkuri kaecchau
youna kiga surukedo.
I rather feel you will be bowled over.
Atashi imamade konnani kokorono komotta presidentte morattano
hajimete nanda.
I have never had such a heartfelt present.
Atashi sa konoaida chone baitode tammari okane moracchattan
dayoo.
I got lots of money for my part-time job the other day.
Atashi mo sa kawarini kanika katteageru yo.
I can buy you something in return for it.
Boku no hoshii mono?
What do I want?
Boku no hoshiimono wa ne.
What I want to have is…
Chiisai kedo watashi dairuki nanda.
It is small, but I love it.
Watashitachi oneechan to mou ato mikkagoni kaeranakucha
ikenaijan.
We will have to be back in three days, so...
Boku ga deattekita ookuno nihonjinno nakade ichiban shojikide
soshite kokorono utsukushii hito desu.
You have the most honest and the most beautiful heart that I have
ever met.
Watashi, kokonisa nokosashite moraouto omounnda.
I decided to stay here.
In the above list, all the utterances include first person-pronouns, but 13
(their numbers in bold face: 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20,
23), which is 50% of the 26 cases, do not have to have the first-person
pronouns, meaning the utterances are possible without them. These seem to
have the pronouns in order to highlight the first-person nature of the
utterances. On the other hand, the first-person pronouns are mandatory in
the rest. In order to clearly differentiate among the cases where the firstperson pronouns are mandatory, or are not necessary, or cannot be replaced,
further examination will be necessary.
4.2 Second-Person Pronouns
In order to answer research question (2), all the portions with second-person
pronouns are listed below. There are 32 cases altogether and 18 cases
(56.3%) have zero second-person pronouns while 14 cases (43.7%) have
uttered second-person pronouns.
The following is the list of portions without second-person pronouns:
215
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
Nepal, tte gozonji desuka.
Do you know where Nepal is?
Mou, norikaerareru kara.
Now you can change the vehicle.
Sonnani nagakuwa noranaikara daijoubu yo.
You will be fine as you don’t have to take a ride for long.
Hee, donna mono kauno.
Oh, what kind of thing will you buy?
Kuichigirarechau wa yo.
You will be eaten.
Are, Nepal no hito nandesho. Hee, nihongo shabererunnda.
Oh, you are a Nepalese, are you? Oh, you can speak Japanese.
Korette mizutte iwanai.
You don’t call this water.
Oi, maya, maya, yokosan wo sorosoro okoshiteageta houga iinnjanai
kana.
Hey, Maya, Maya. You should wake up Yoko.
Oreini [niramekko] shitekurette?
As a thank-you, do you want me to play a staring game?
Yooku warattekureru wanee.
You laugh a lot, don’t you?
Isshoni ikagadesuka.
Why don’t you have them?
Matta?
Have you waited long?
Nanika negaigoto shitanndesuka?
Did you make some wishes?
Kore kiniitte moraeruka douka wakaranainn desukedo.
I don’t know if you like it or not, but.
Moratte moraemasuka
Do you kindly receive it?
Nanika hoshiimono aru?
Do you want something?
Nani icchateru noyo.
What are you talking about?
Crystal no koto, itomeyouto shitatte dame yo.
You cannot get Crystal.
In contrast to the cases of the first-person pronouns, explicit second-person
pronouns are not acceptable as natural Japanese in any of the cases above.
In fact, there are different types of pronouns in Japanese which correspond
to the English “you”; however, the most common pronoun anata or anta is
sometimes regarded as derogative (Lydia Sugawara, personal
216
communication, 2007, August). Instead of pronouns, people’s names or
social positions or roles are used. Thus, all the cases above could
accommodate names or social positions, such as oneechan (big sister).
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
Atashii, oneechanga
I, you, sis…
Nee, annta annta
Hey, you, you.
Yoko-san norikae masuka.
Yoko, do you want to change the vehicle?
Anta sukinee
You really like it.
Anta dokkani switch motterun janai no?
Do you have a switch or something somewhere?
Anata wa subarashii hito da.
You are a really wonderful person.
Demo Anata wa muraju no kodomotachi wo, otoshiyoriwo,
keganinntachi made yorokobasete kuretaja arimasenka.
But you pleased the children, the elderly, and the injured people in
the village.
Anata no ikutokoro kodomotachi no akarui waraigoede michiteiru.
There are lots of happy children’s laughter wherever you are.
Anata wa nihonhe kaette wakarukotono dekinai otoshiyori ya
keganinn ya kodomotachi ni.
I would like you to give your happy and beautiful heart to the
elderly, the injured people and the children when you go back to
Japan.
Anata no akarui kokoro wo utsukushiku tadashii kokoro wo
todoketeagete moraitain desu.
I would like you to convey your cheerful, beautiful and just heart to
them.
Nani ittennnoyo annta
What are you talking about?
Annta mitaina ne. wagamamana monoga kokoni nokotte
doushiyoutte iuno yo.
What on earth are you, such a selfish person, going to do staying
here?
Anta nanka zotto kaeritai kaeritaitte wagamama bakkari ittete.
You just said you wanted to be back all the time.
Anta nankane nanka takuranndenn janai.
You are just planning something
Just as the cases of zero second-person pronouns cannot have second-person
pronouns added, in the cases with uttered second-person pronouns there
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seems to be no option for omitting the second-person pronouns. In other
words, all the cases in the above list need second-person pronouns. In some
cases, such as number 1, the social role or status is addressed instead of the
second person. Watanabe (2007) pointed out that the deictic center moves to
the social world by addressing the second person with his/her social role or
status.
5. Discussion
The first- and second-person pronouns in rakugo translation can be
interpreted using the theory of linguistic relativity (Sapir 1921/2004; Whorf
1956). For example, the notion of high-context and low-context society
(Hall 1976) will explain the phenomena of zero personal pronouns. The
importance of Japanese seken (Abe 2002; Sato 2001/2007), or Husserl’s
life-world, in constructing the Japanese sense of self (Kuwayama 1992;
Lebra 2004) may also explain the absence of personal pronouns or zero
personal pronouns.
Regarding the first-person pronoun omission, the first explanation may
be made using the notion of high-context and low-context society (Hall
1976). Based on the notion of the typical high-context society, Japanese
people may be economical with the length of the utterance when the
information is regarded as obvious. In the case of first-person pronouns,
when the individual talks about himself/herself, listeners should know about
whom that individual is talking. Therefore, the first-person pronouns are not
supposed to be uttered, especially in the culturally-colored rakugo
discourse. Second, the theory of linguistic relativity may explain this
phenomenon. Based on linguistic relativity, language may classify
experience, reflect action, and shape a person’s worldview. Thus, the
linguistic system of Japanese that allows its speakers to omit first-person
pronouns may classify their experiences, reflect their actions and shape their
worldview (Whorf 1956). It is consequently hypothesized that Japanese
people perceive their existence, in Kuwayama’s (1992) terms, in a less selfcentered and other-reference oriented way. This interpretation seems to be
in accordance with Sato’s (2001/2007) argument that the Japanese cannot
construct the self without the notion of seken.
On the other hand, in the case of the mandatory utterances of first-person
pronouns in the rakugo script, atashi, the informal version of the firstperson pronoun, is more frequently used than the formal version watashi.
Yoko, the main character in this rakugo script, uses atashi and many of the
utterances, including the mandatory first-person pronouns, are Yoko’s. In
this rakugo story, Yoko represents a different type of woman from
traditional Japanese women who value reticence and are less self-centered.
Kyoraku, the author of this rakugo script, seems to have the intention of
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projecting Yoko as an assertive and less typical Japanese. Yoko’s language
seems to successfully reflect her view of life, which is implied by the theory
of linguistic relativity. In rakugo, where one person performs the roles of a
number of characters, the language is expected to reflect the characters’
actions and shape their outlooks.
Regarding the second-person pronouns, the omission of second-person
pronouns predominates in the interrogative utterances. As with the omission
of the first-person pronouns, the notion of high context (Hall 1976) may
provide an interpretation for this linguistic phenomenon. In the dialogic
interaction, interrogatives are obviously directed towards the second person
in general. Therefore, in Japanese, where fewer utterances are preferred and
a lot of information is presumed to be known, second-person pronouns are
unlikely to be uttered. The common pronoun of anata and anta, which are
less formal versions of atata, are sometimes regarded as derogative, as has
been pointed out by Lydia (personal communication, 2007, August), a
Peruvian living for a long time in Japan. In the rakugo script used for the
present study, in addition, the Nepalese characters show negative reactions
when referred to as anta. Instead of using the second-person pronouns,
Japanese people use the person’s name or their social roles or statuses, such
as oneechan (“big sis”). As posited by Watanabe (2007), using social roles
in addressing the second person may change the deictic center of the social
world. Lebra’s (2004) notion of having two sides of being in one individual,
that is, the “subject I” and “object me”, may explain the positionality of the
interlocutors, which validates the theory of linguistic relativity. More
specifically, using the person’s name or social role reveals the way in which
Japanese people situate themselves in dialogic interaction, which means that
language influences perception of the world.
Lastly, zero pronouns in both the first and second persons may affect the
way of constructing the Japanese sense of self, which is based on
contingency logic according to Lebra (2004), in orchestration with the
powerful effects of seken (Abe 2002; Sato 2001/2007). These findings may
support the linguistic relativity hypothesis. It must be noted that there are
other languages with zero pronouns; however, they have different linguistic
features. For instance, Latin languages such as Spanish have inflections
which suggest the pronouns. There have been some studies on zero
pronouns (Chaudhary 2003; Na-Rae, 2006) that analyze the relationship
with the construction of the sense of self. Chaudhary investigates the case of
Hindi and Na-Rae examines the case of Korean, and they discuss how zero
pronouns are related to their concept of self. Here, in this study, zero
pronouns in the rakugo script may be considered to influence the way in
which the Japanese construct their sense of self, requiring the involvement
of seken, the life-world. In addition to seken, Japanese spoken discourse
may shed some light on ‘uncertainty’, which may require ‘epistemicity’,
through zero pronouns, to promote a certain degree of politeness (cf. Ohta
219
1991). This interpretation may justify linguistic relativity. As Humboldt
believes, since there are diverse linguistic forms, language affects how
human beings think (Adler 2009).
6. Concluding Remarks
The present study, focusing on first- and second-person pronouns in the
process of translating a rakugo script in Japanese into English, clarified the
research questions as follows:
(1) First-person pronoun omissions appear in more than half the cases where
the English translation needs first-person pronouns. Moreover, half of the
omitted first-person pronouns cannot be uttered in the natural Japanese
dialogic interaction. In the rest of the cases where the first-person pronouns
are used, approximately half of them cannot be omitted. Japanese may use
zero first-person pronouns when the situation is obvious and it is not
necessary to utter them.
(2) Second-person pronoun omissions appear more frequently than firstperson pronoun omissions. The Japanese seem to use zero second-person
pronouns wherever they are not mandatory. Additionally, the second-person
pronouns in Japanese are occasionally regarded as derogatory and names or
social roles are used instead to address the dialogic interlocutors.
(3) Linguistic relativity, including the notion of the high- and low-context
society, and the way of constructing the Japanese sense of self with the
powerful effects of seken, seems to interpret the linguistic phenomena of
first- and second-person pronoun-use revealed in the process of translating
the rakugo script. In brief, the linguistic feature of zero pronouns may
support the notion of the high context society and facilitate the way of
constructing the Japanese sense of self based on contingency logic,
involving seken. This phenomena may enhance the degreee of the
politeness.
For further study, a more minute analysis regarding first- and second-person
pronouns in the context of the rakugo discourse could probe the in-depth
mechanism of the linguistic system and clarify the inextricable relationship
between human universality and linguistic relativity. This could be done
through a thorough examination of the literature on linguistic relativity from
multiple perspectives, such as Slobin (1996 2003) and Gumperz and
Levinson (1996), plus more classical but axiominal studies by Humboldt
(Adler 2009; Underhill 2013).
220
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Chapter 5
Philosophy
224
The certainty of the Ego, the doubt about the Other
A critical perspective
Moira De Iaco
University of Bari “Aldo Moro” (Italy)
moiradeiaco@libero.it
Abstract
The idea of an Ego that can communicate certainties only about himself
because he can have an immediate and so a certain knowledge only of his
own interiority, is responsible of the doubts about the Other. Each Ego says
to be doubtful about the innerself of the Other and so communicates
uncertainties about himself. Behind this idea there is the misleading image
inner/exterior: it is connected with a confusion between grammatical and
empirical. We try to show the critical points of this misleading perspective,
starting from the thesis that our innerself takes form in the language, from a
common shared space, and so it is not private, solipsistic, or metaphysical.
Keywords: Innerself, mind, language, grammatical research, public we
1. Introduction
The Cartesian thesis, and not only Cartesian, from which the first and only
certain idea (certain because it is a clear and distinct product of an inner
movement of thought) evolves, is that the Ego thinks and so exists
(Descartes 1641); it implies the doubt about the existence of the Other. This
doubt is often formulated in the so-called problem of “existence of other
minds besides his own”. The question is: "How do I know that there are
other minds other than mine?". Which means to ask: "How do I know that
others suffer, hope, fear, desire, or think?" or "How can I prove that there
are other minds and that others have not only a body?". At first sight the
issue appears epistemological because it seems to affect the way we know
things or the way we can demonstrate some beliefs (Avramides 2001, 2).
To justify the existence of other minds is difficult as much as the
existence and contents of its own seem immediate and transparent.
Therefore, the way we think about the mind of the Ego gives rise to
difficulties: the
thinking
Ego, in
the
dominant
metaphysical
solipsistic view that sees the progress of thought in complete isolation in the
Ego mind, is certain to have an authoritative, privileged and private access
225
to the objects, states or processes, of his own mind (Descartes 1641). In
fact, only the Ego seems to have immediate knowledge of his own inner
contents. In this purpose, we think of Locke’s theory of ideas, according to
which the ideas are inner products of thought: the senses convey in the mind
sensible qualities such as Yellow, White, Heat, Cold, Soft, Hard, Bitter,
Sweet and that means that “they from external Objects convey in the mind
what produces there those Perceptions. This great Source, of most of the
Ideas we have, depending wholly upon our Senses, and derived by them to
the Understanding, I call SENSATION” (Locke 1690, 156). Perceiving is,
for Locke, “having Ideas” (Locke 1690, 162): sensible qualities are not
property of external Objects, but ideas into the mind 1 . When someone
reflects on the ideas into his own mind, then these operations by mind “do
furnish the Understanding with another set of Ideas, which could not be had
from things without; and such operations are: Perception, Thinking,
Doubting, Believing, Reasoning, Knowing, Willing, and all the different
actings of our own Minds” (Locke 1690, 162).
Behind this perspective, there is the belief in the misleading image
inner/exterior: the inner is always true and therefore certain, because each
Ego, and only the Ego, can have a first hand knowledge of it, so it is
synonym of depth; the exterior, the communication of the inner, comes from
the inner and is its surface, like a faded picture of inner. We think that each
Ego can only observe the surface of the Other, but not the depth: this
implies the communication of uncertainty about the Other. According to this
view that we are describing, the inner of the Other remains invisible and we
can observe only signs which come from it. The signs represent the inner,
but they are not exhaustive and often the correspondence between outer
signs and inner is not certain. The signs, which we have only to speak about
the existence of others, seem to make uncertain the inner contents of others.
The existence of internal objects of others is essentially inaccessible: it can
only be inferred through the analogy that the Ego observes between itself
and other humans. So the Other, with his own interior, remains exposed to
doubt. Each Ego can communicate only the certainty about his own inner,
because he has a certain knowledge of it: he can be conscious only of it
because he can observe in himself. Instead, about one of the Other he can
communicate uncertainties, because he cannot really know/observe it.
2. The grammar of the word mind
We have to deconstruct the dominant metaphysical solipsistic view that sees
the progress of thought in complete isolation in the Ego mind. Our thesis is,
1
About this point, see the four theses of Hobbes argued in Elements of Law Natural and
Politic (1650, 9-10).
226
according to Wittgenstein’s philosophy, that the thought is articulated in
language (Wittgenstein 2000, 233-237): our certainties und uncertainties
take form in a language. Our words, which told the interior, come from the
public common language. The Ego speaks of his own interiority with the
words that belong to all speakers, with words that come from others,
without the need to translate mysterious private psychic processes. Doubts
about Others arise because we begin to reflect on the mind, always
reflecting in first person. Therefore, each Ego reflects on his own mind. The
proposal is to show the misunderstandings hidden in the belief that what we
call ‘mind’ is immediately accessible to the Ego, while the existence of one
of the Others remains doubtful. To do this we discuss what we call 'mind'
with a phenomenological methodology.
We need to deconstruct this “ontology in the first person”, as it is called
by Searle (1998, 46). There are some misunderstandings hidden in the
belief that what we call mind is immediately accessible to the Ego, while
the existence of one of the Others remains doubtful. Let me ask: “What do
we call mind?”. Following Wittgenstein we look-through the grammar of
the word mind2. In this way, the epistemological problem concerning the
existence of Others becomes a conceptual problem concerning the way we
think about the mind and, therefore, the way we talk about it. The
epistemological problem of knowledge of Others can be considered a
conceptual problem because the conceptual framework puts together in a
certain way to think about everything we call “mind” made doubting the
existence of Others.
How do we play daily the word “mind”? We say, for example:
1)
a. “Thousands of thoughts go through my mind”
b. “An idea comes up in my mind”
c. “I calculate”, in Italian we could say, “by mind”, but in English we
say “I calculate by heart”
d. “I read by mind”, in English we can say “I learn by heart” to say
what in Italian means “learning by memory”.
e. We order someone: “Think by your mind!”, “Think by your
head!”.
f. We say, too: “You are always on my mind”
g. “I have a fixed thought”
h. “I have in my head a beautiful color”; in English, there is the
expression “I make up my mind” to say that we decided
something, or, another beautiful English expression is “I give you
2
See paragraph 90 of the Philosophical Investigations, which describes the philosophical
research as a grammatical research, saying that the philosophers should look-through the
phenomena: the philosophical research does not address the phenomena, but, could be say,
the possibilities of them (Wittgenstein 1953, § 90).
227
a piece of my mind“, used to mean that we share a thought, an
idea.
i. And also: “I have a pain that I cannot take my mind off it”
l. “So many memories in my mind”
m. “What I have to do is written on my mind”
n. “My mind is a complete blank”: there are no thoughts nor ideas
inside the mind
o. “I didn’t say, but my mind believed it”
p. “My mind is somewhere else”
q. “Your body is here, but not your mind”
We could go on, but we stop and ask ourselves: what can be observed in this
grammatical research? The mind seems to keep internal states and processes
which are vital mechanisms of external signs: memories, sensations,
thoughts, pains, beliefs, are all in the mind. The mind produces them. The
Others are on my mind; the world, in the form of an idea, is on my mind and
I know it by introspection. Remembering, thinking, feeling, imagining and
also reading, calculating, are activities on and by mind: the private space of
the Ego. The mind is like an organ used to carry out the inner functions. It is
a secret chest where there are the most important processes and states. The
contents of the mind are priority. Since the seventeenth century what were
the powers of the soul, which were in the hearth3 as we can still see in some
English uses, have been moved into the mind or into the brain (Descartes
1637, 1641) as shown in the language games with the word mind4. Mind
and body could be separated5. They could be at the same time in different
places: when this happens the body seems inanimate.
So we come to say sentences such as:
2)
a. ”I cannot read your mind. Tell me what you feel!”
b. “What goes through your head?”
c. “I want to know what is on your mind”
d. “You cannot know what flashes in my mind”
e. “You cannot know what I imagine”
The Other is powerless before the secrecy of my mind as we are powerless
before his own. Everyone’s mind is impenetrable by other minds: the
mystery of the human essence, the mystery around what constitutes the man
in a way that seems deeper, is all on the mind. Each of us can speak about
3
See Aristotele 354 b. C. The soul with its powers describes in On Soul is localized, for the
whole ancient gnoseology, in the heart.
4
Before Descartes, we have had the other important step of the mechanistic science of
Galilei, according to which when the human animal is removed, also the world is removed
because only in the human animal would reside sensible qualities (Galilei 1623, § 46).
5
The dualism of mind-body was introduced in philosophy by Descartes.
228
mind only at the first person: “I only know what happens in mine”. In this
regard, we look-through the following language game:
3)
“He seems to believe in the possibility to do it”
Someone observes that an Other seems to believe something. We can never
speak in this way at the first person. Regarding the ideas which we know by
introspection, as Locke has shown us, i. e. ideas such as thinking,
imagining, believing, etc., we can speak only with uncertainty: they should
be inferred. When these ideas are our own, we would rather say, for
example:
4)
“I believe in the possibility to do it”.
This sentence communicates a certainty. It is not necessary to observe my
belief; I have not to interpret my behavior. I know to believe. I do not need
to communicate to myself this kind of knowledge. Instead, I need to infer
the Other’s belief; I need to observe it through his behavior. In this sense
Wittgenstein (1982, 167) writes in the Last Writings on the Philosophy of
Psychology: “Seem to believe, a verb. The first person of the present tense is
foolish, because I know my intention”. And he continues saying: “Respect
my words, I have a totally different attitude than respect the ones of Others”.
In fact: “I do not hear them to come to know something on me. The words
are with my actions in a completely different relationship than with the
actions of Others” (Wittgenstein 1982, 168). They are pictures of inner
states and processes that I know already. In the case of Others, they refer to
thoughts, states, actions, that I need to observe and check by inference.
Therefore, we can observe, always with Wittgenstein, that “I am interested
in my words and my actions in a different way from how I am interested in
them of someone else (I’m thinking of my intonation, too). Respect them, I
do not behave like an observer» (Wittgenstein 1982, 168). The intonation
can be an indication of the degree of belief, certainty and awareness. We can
say briefly that “I cannot observe myself such as I observe someone else”
(Wittgenstein 1982, 168) and “I do not draw from my words from
conclusions about my probable actions. I do not need it” (Wittgenstein
1982, 169).
Now we look through these other language games:
5)
a. “I have never doubted my mind”
b. “I was convinced for a long time”
c. “I kept it in my mind. I do not remember any more”
d. “I thought of him all the time”
e. “It is all day that I cannot take my mind off this idea”
229
f. “In my mind, I was hoping that it happens” or “Inside me, I was
hoping that it would happen, even if I did not say it”
Believing, thinking, remembering and hoping, seem to be internal states or
processes with a time and a place. They are inside each Ego, into his own
mind or head. We think, for example, that we can believe something without
saying that I believe it now or I believed it in the past: we could also never
say it. We think, as Wittgenstein writes, that “the belief is a state of mind. It
exists for a certain period of time, it is not tied to the time of its expression”
(Wittgenstein 1982, 170). The belief seems to be a kind of disposition: “in
the Other displays to me it his behavior and his words” (Wittgenstein 1982,
170). The external signs, behavior or words, are an instrument to display to
the Others the private internal self, from which they come. This display is
always uncertain: the interior displays me like a faded picture. Wittgenstein
(1958, 184) says that is “a widespread disease of thought to look for (and to
find) behind all our actions a state of mind that is their origin, a kind of
tank”.
Looking-through the concrete speech of an interior, it emerges that: we
believe to have an interior, like a private space; that only the Ego knows
immediately and therefore with certainty and that is the source of life of all
that is manifested. The faded exterior based on the interior makes visible the
precious interior, although still superficial and partial; and therefore it
appears as a source of uncertainty. Each Ego can communicate certainties
only about himself thanks to the immediate knowledge of its internal self.
Instead, about Others, the Ego can communicate only uncertainties. The
idea internal/external is quite misleading and it is responsible of this
paradigm of the common thought. Where is it from? Where is the fault of
our language that feeds it? We have been trained to think so. The grammar
of our language taught us that this internal/external image is essential to
understand the human essence. The grammar conveys a popular philosophy
(Wittgenstein 2000, 421) and this philosophy leads us to think precisely that
every external sign is powered by an inexhaustible and ineffable interior,
which can be considered a secret treasure in which is guarded what each
Ego is, what to the Other can never be fully shown by the external signs.
3. The difference between grammatical and empirical
Grammar has led for centuries philosophy: it has led to believe that to each
verb corresponds an activity as to each substantive corresponds a substance
(Wittgenstein 1958, 13). Therefore, we think, for example, that writing is
like thinking: we write on the paper by hand as we think in the mind by
head. We use pain as we use table and we think that the first is an object in
the interior space as the second is an object in the space in front of us. Look
230
at, for example, the sentence “I have a pain”: we think that the Ego who
says it has in the sense of possession an object as he says that it has a jacket,
his jacket. The verb “to have” is misleading here, too. There are misleading
analogies in these uses. In this regard, Wittgenstein compares in The Blue
Book the sentence “He has a gold tooth” with the sentence “I cannot feel the
toothache that he has” (Wittgenstein 1958, 67). The first sentence means
that the tooth is in his mouth and therefore I cannot see it if the mouth is
closed; but, however, I can verify the certainty of the existence of it if he
opens his mouth. In a similar way, we think that in the second sentence
there is a reference to something inside the mouth. The verb “to have” leads
us to think that there is a possession of a substance such as a possession of a
state, with the difference that while in one case, that of the gold tooth, there
is a material object that is visible and we can check it by the opening of the
mouth, so it is certain, not doubtful; in the other case, the pain is not like the
tooth, it is not a material object directly visible and therefore seems that it
should be regarded as a metaphysical, ineffable object. Its existence is
uncertain because it is not objectively demonstrable. Only each Ego is
certain of this kind of internal object, states and processes. Before these
internal objects, Wittgenstein says, we have to unmask a confusion of
grammar sentences like “I cannot feel the toothache that he has” with
empiric sentences like “He has a gold tooth” and so all becomes obscure
(Wittgenstein 1958, 67). The grammar sentence tells us what we can and
cannot do with the word “pain” or “toothache”6.
The grammatical gives form to the empirical: for the humans the
experience finds sense in the grammar of a language, but the sense of the
experience is inexhaustible for the grammatical. However, the grammatical
lets us go beyond the experience and the existent. The grammatical opens
creative space unhooked from reality. Grammatical sentences tells the
establishment of the empirical within the conceptual, but also those to talk
about what transcends from it. They are, as Majetschak (2000, 256) clearly
says, while commenting on Wittgenstein, “Regelformulierungen für den
Gebrauch von Wortern in unseren Sprachspielen”, that is rules for the use of
words in our language games. In empirical sentences we find properties of
objects of our experience. They give form to our experience. The fact that in
the grammatical take form both the empirical as that transcends from it
generates confusion: we are not more capable to discern what is object of
science because it can be explained by the science and what, instead, can be
only described by philosophy. "It can be thought what in reality does not
exist" (Wittgenstein 1953, § 96) and this can be done because the language
About the confusion between grammatical and empirical, see Luigi Perissinotto’s essay
entitled “Wittgenstein: ricerche concettuali vs. ricerche fattuali” (1996, 627-47) and also
Perissinotto’s Introduction to Wittgenstein 1993, VII-XXVII.
6
231
allows to disengage us from reality. There is something that does not give
concrete experience, something that lies in the concepts, which is of purely
grammatical kind. Also the empirical, for us, human beings interposed by
language, passes through the grammar, but retains its autonomy, that is the
possibility of verifying based on direct trade with the world of our senses.
While what cannot be given real experience can only be, so to speak,
occurred in the language: grammar rules, in fact, delimit its building.
4. Certainty and uncertainty take form in a language
The words have many different functions. They play various language
games. We cannot think that they are always denominations (Wittgenstein
1953, §§ 11-17, 23-30). The meaning is not a material object corresponding
to the noun or an immaterial idea on the mind as argued by Locke (1690,
744-754). It is, in reality, a result of an interpretation of a sign and we need
it to prepare the use of non-understood, strange or unfamiliar words
(Wittgenstein 1953, §§ 1-3; 1958, 5-6). When we use signs, in the ordinary
use, we do not think about this use: we talk, we write, we think (in signs)
and it is enough without the interposing of mental processes or states 7 .
When we do not understand a sign, we stop ourselves to ask the meaning of
the non-understood sign: the explanation of this meaning is the result of a
thought in other signs, an interpretation8. This is a great long goal that here
we cannot analyze.
The philosophy has to become, as Wittgenstein (1969a, § 54) says,
Verwalterin, that is in English tutor, administrator
of grammar.
Wittgenstein (1958, 76) writes that “when we say «I cannot feel his pain»
we think to an insurmountable barrier” comparable to a case as “The colors
green and blue can not be simultaneously in the same place” (Wittgenstein
1958, 76). On this second physical impossibility, confusing grammatical
with empirical, the sentence about the pain is built, which expresses a
metaphysical impossibility. But before the supposed metaphysical
impossibility we have to ask with Wittgenstein’s words: “If what I feel
always is only my pain, what can the supposition that someone else has pain
mean?” (Wittgenstein 1958, 77). The solipsist thinks: “Others cannot have
my pain”. But: “What are my pains? What is here the criterion of identity?”
(Wittgenstein 1953, § 253). Wittgenstein argues: “Consider what makes it
possible, in the case of physical objects, talking about two things exactly
identical. As to say, for example, «This chair is not the same that you saw
here yesterday, but it is exactly identical»” (Wittgenstein 1953, § 253). We
7
See the section of The Big Typescript dedicated to the meaning conceived as the
explanation of meaning (Wittgenstein 2000, 31-63). About the meaning in Wittgenstein see
Di Cesare 2006 and Majetschak 1995.
8
In this regard, see Josef Simon’s work Philosophy of the sign (1995).
232
observe that the language makes possible the establishment of the identity: it
builds the bases of the community in which we can identify objects in
different times and places, beyond space and time barriers. We have not
access to a private use of words, that always come from a public we: from
Others.
We cannot create a private language denoting states and internal
processes that we consider private: they cannot be played as public
functions. There is a paragraph of Wittgenstein’s (1953, § 257)
Philosophical Investigations now useful:
"But if men do not express their pains (not groaning, not turn up the face
etc..)? Then it would not be possible to teach a child the use of the word
toothache" - Well, we suppose that the child is a genius and invent for
himself a name for this feeling! – But, of course, this word would not be
able to make himself understood by Others. – Now, he understand that
name, but is he unable to explain the meaning to anyone else? – But what
does it mean “He gave a name to his pain”? How did he give a name to
the pain?
And we continue asking: “Where does the name from?”. We think,
understand, feel, in public words that were from Others. We can be certain
about something because we have the certainty of a traditional, historical
language connected with the form of life, in which we are situated. In this
sense, we can say that certainty or uncertainty are communicated also
without communication. The certainty, and so the uncertainty too, are
articulated in the language that we speak. The language gives each Ego his
interior 9 : with common words, it gives to each Ego the interior of the
Others. In the language, it appears to us the inexhaustible world. Ego is a
common word. We have stop using it like a proper noun. We can say “I”,
because someone else says “He”: we need the words of the Other that give
us the certainty of our speech about something or about someone
(Wittgenstein 1958, 90-95). Within words, we share a common certain
world. The agreement within words give us the certainty of Others beyond
me. Wittgenstein writes in On Certainty that “who is not sure of any fact,
cannot even be sure of the meaning of his words”. So, “who wants to doubt
everything, would not reach even the doubt. The same play of doubting
presupposes certainty” (Wittgenstein 1969b, 22).
9
In this regard cfr. Johnston 1993.
233
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2005.
Avramides, Anita. 2001 Other Minds. London-New York: Routledge.
Descartes, René. 1637. Discorso sul metodo, Italian translation by É. Gilson
e E. Carrara. Firenze: La Nuova Italia 1932.
Descartes, René. 1641. Meditazioni metafisiche, Italian translation by S.
Landucci. Bari: Laterza 2005.
Di Cesare, Donatella. 2006. “Die Bedeutung dekonstruiren. Bemerkungen
anhand des Big Typescript.” In Wittgensteins „groβe
Maschinenschrift”, ed. by Stefan Majetschak, 124-144. FrankfurtBerlin-Bern-Bruxelles-Oxford-New York-Wien: Lang.
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legge naturale e politica, by A. Pacchi. Milano: RCS libri 2010.
Johnston, Paul. 1993. Wittgenstein. Rethinking the Inner. London:
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filosofia della psicologia di Wittgenstein, by R. Brigati. Firenze: La
Nuova Italia 1998.
Locke, John. 1690. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Italian
translation, Saggio sull’intelletto umano, by V. Cicero e M. G.
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fattuali”. In Alle radici della filosofia analitica, Atti del I Convegno
Nazionale della Società Italiana di Filosofia Analitica – Genova,
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Searle, John R. 1998. Mind, Language and Society. Italian translation,
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Raffaello Cortina Editore 2000.
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Wittgenstein, Ludwig. 1953. Philosophische Untersuchungen. Oxford: Basil
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Torino: Einaudi 1999.
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Nuova Italia 1990.
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1999.
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L. Perissinotto. Torino: Einaudi 2007.
235
Uncertaintes and undetermination in the use of
indexical terms:
David Kaplan and Charles S. Peirce in comparison
Luca Russo
Technical University of Dresden (Germany)
lucarusso86@gmail.com
Abstract
Indexical terms and demonstratives can be used to refer to determined
objects, even when their semantics presents a certain degree of
underdetermination. There is an almost constitutive uncertainty in their use
which excludes that they can function simply by applying mechanically
some rules. The aim of the present paper is to search whether a semantical
explanation of indexical terms can be given which accounts for this
phenomenon. The requirements of such an account are: first, that it applies
in the same way to uncertain and not uncertain cases; second, that the
meaning of the term already implies that further information is required in
order to determine which object is intended. By analysing four cases of
uncertainties, two theories of indexicals will be compared: that of David
Kaplan and that of Chalres Sanders Peirce.
Keywords: Indexical terms, demonstratives, underdetermination, Charles
Sanders Peirce, David Kaplan
1. Introduction: Indexical terms and uncertainties in their use
The general features of indexical terms
Indexical terms and demonstratives are the most important linguistic devices
used to link conceptual contents with spatio-temporally determined
situations and entities. This power is guaranteed by their almost automatic
functioning: An index refers to its denoted object for the very act of being
uttered.
A sentence containing an indexical term has an incomplete set of truth
conditions, which requires contextual saturation; this contextual saturation is
rule-governed and ends with the individuation of a singular referent.
Given an indexical term and a context, the determination of a referent
does not require other (conceptual or pragmatic) factors. An indexical term
uttered in a context is usually saturated.
236
Four situations of uncertainty in the use of indexical terms
There are cases where the semantics of an indexical term left the term
underdetermined, that is it does not individuate unambiguously a single
referent. This involves a certain degree of uncertainty. This uncertainty,
however, does not prevent it to be used to refer to something determined.
The aim of the present research is to answer to the following question: how
can an indexical term present this kind of uncertainty and still refer to a
determined object? Is a semantical account of indexical terms possible
which explains this phenomenon?
Four cases of underdetermination of indexical terms and demonstratives
will be taken into consideration, namely: 1. The fact that certain indexicals
have vague boundaries (i.e. “Now”); 2. The application of indexical
references within fictional worlds; 3. The use of demonstratives
accompanied by a false or incomplete description; 4. The use of referential
definite descriptions with no demonstrative act accompanying it.
1. The first case of underdetermination seems to be the least compelling
one. A determined referent is individuated, whereas the uncertainty lies only
in the exact width of it. The word “now” refers undoubtedly to the present
moment, leaving undetermined whether this ‘moment’ lasts few seconds,
some days or even years. Therefore, the uncertainty does not affect the term
having a single determined referent; it affects only our capability to evaluate
of the truth of the sentence. The semantics of indexical terms could
therefore leave the solution of this uncertainty to purely pragmatic elements.
The reason while it is included in the present account is to furnish a
systematical approach to the problem: a semantic explanation of the other
three forms of uncertainty is naturally apt to explain also this one.
2. There are cases in which an indexical term is used to refer to an object
which is not individuated from the context of utterance, but rather from
another ‘standing point’ in which the hearer must ideally put himself. In
other words, there are cases in which “here” and “now” do not refer to the
place or time in which those words are uttered, but to another ‘point of
observation’. The most important of those cases is the use of indexical terms
within fictional works (Bonomi 1998): in these cases an indexical term does
not refer to some object that has to be individuated starting from the context
in which the writer materially writes his work. It refers to an object which
must be individuated from a point of observation ‘internal’ to the fictional
world. This does not mean necessarily that the individuation occurs starting
from a fictional context of utterance posed inside the fictional world. This
would be the case, for example, of a character of a novel who says: “Now I
am getting angry”. “Now” refers to the fictional time in which the character
utters that sentence. Yet a novel includes also sentences containing
indexicals that are not uttered by any character, but are ‘uttered’, so to
237
speak, by the narrative voice. The ‘point of observation’ from which the
referent of the indexical must be individuated must therefore be described
with a different concept than that of ‘context of utterance’. Those cases
show how the semantics of indexical terms needs a different, wider
characterization of the ‘point of observation’, which could be or not be the
context of utterance, together with an explanation of the mechanisms which
allow to pass from the context of utterance to the point of observation.
3. Demonstratives are such terms as “this” or “that”, which are accompanied
by an act of demonstration. Their reference is fixed given a context of
utterance and an act of demonstration. Usually they include a description of
the relevant object. We usually talk about “that book” or “this man” and so
on. In the case of demonstratives a state of uncertainty can arise due to the
use of a description which does not match the intended object either because
it is incorrect (saying “that pen” when indicating a pencil) or incomplete for
the aim of individuating a single referent (saying “that book” when
indicating a shelf that contains more than one book). We often find that the
individuation of the intended referent on the part of the hearer is possible
even when the description is insufficient or misleading. The core point of
the phenomenon is that the description cannot be a necessary and sufficient
condition for an object to be the denotatum of the term (otherwise “that pen”
could not be used to indicate a pencil), but it also cannot be completely
stripped out from the referential mechanism of the term (otherwise it would
be the same to say “this” or “that” without further qualification). The
description must have a semantical role, but precisely which one? A theory
of demonstratives must account for the successful use of the whole
demonstrative (demonstrative term + description + act of demonstration)
even in presence of an underdetermined or misleading description.
4. An interesting phenomenon that regards the use of description was
individuated by Keith Donellan: it is the so called referential definite
description (Donnellan 1966) 1 . David Kaplan (1989b, 583-584) showed
how the latter can be used as sort of demonstrative which does not involve
an act of demonstration; it is used, so to speak, as a sort of implicit
demonstrative . Since they do not involve an act of demonstration, they lack
of the element which could give an automatic link of the utterance to the
object. There are no other explicit semantic elements besides the
description. Yet, like the real demonstratives, they can be successfully used
to refer to something determined in the context of utterance even when the
description is incorrect (Ibid.). How is it possible? Is it merely the
consequence of a pragmatic adjustment or is it rather that a semantic
1
A definite description is attributive when it is meant to refer to whatever object satisfies
the description; it is referential when it is used to refer to a particular object which the user
has in mind. A referential definite description can work even if it is incorrect: for example,
when one refers to someone’s fiancée by calling him “her husband”.
238
characterization of indexicals and demonstratives could be given that
accounts for this possibility?
I wish to stress the fact that all these cases of underdetermination could
be handled by pragmatics. What shall be questioned is whether they could
be accounted for by semantics, too. In other words, it shall be investigated
whether there is a semantic description of indexicals which works the same
way both in the ‘normal’, ‘determined’ uses and in the ‘underdetermined’
ones.
How to deal semantically with the uncertainties: two theories in comparison
The question will be handled by comparing two well-known theories of
indexicals: the theory of David Kaplan and the one of Charles Peirce, which
will be presented in a modified form 2 . The former claims that indexical
terms and demonstratives introduce a determined object that is present in a
context into the truth condition of a sentence. The latter is stated within a
semiotical frame and deals with the concrete acts of indication more than
with the truth conditions of propositions. Their comparative advantages and
disadvantages will be analysed in reference to the four cases of uncertainty
listed above.
A Peircean approach suggests treating indexicals as tools to increase
information in situations that regard spatio-temporally determined objects.
The growth in information needs also some inferential steps to reach its aim.
The uncertainties listed above are accounted for by the semantics of the
term because this admits a gap between the information actually given by
the informative content of the term and the information required to complete
the identification and furnished by the inferential steps. For this reason, a
Peircean approach can account for the phenomena under examination
semantically, whereas a Kaplanian approach is comparatively weaker.
2. Kaplan’s theory: Indexicals as rigid designators
Exposition of Kaplan’s theory of indexicals
David Kaplan proposed a complete theory of indexical and demonstrative
terms within the frame of analytical philosophy. Only the essential feature
of it will be described here. The core of Kaplan’s proposal is that indexicals
and demonstratives are rigid designators (Kaplan 1989a, 500). It is meant
with this expression that they apply to the same referent in every
Peirce’s theory is stated within a very different frame from that of Kaplan; therefore, to
make a comparison some concepts will be translated in analytical terms. Moreover, some
consequences will be drawn that are only potentially present in Peirce’s texts. The theory
which will be presented at the end will be a ‘Peircean theory’ and not ‘Peirce’s theory’.
2
239
counterfactual situation. Once the referent is determined, it is fixed for every
possible circumstance of evaluation. The determination of the referent
occurs thanks to the semantic rules of the terms in a determined context of
utterance. The semantic rule connected with the term “I” is “the person who
is uttering this sentence”; given an actual utterance of a sentence, the rule
makes the utterer the referent of that sentence. Yet, the determination of the
referent through both the rule and the context of utterance occurs before the
evaluation of the truth of the sentence, and the semantic rule in particular
does not affect the truth value. In other words, the semantic rule – or as
Kaplan calls it the character – of the indexical term does not belong to the
truth conditions of the sentence: the referent individuated thanks to the rule
does belong to them, but independently from its matching the character.
This means that a sentence of the referent individuated by the indexical term
is true of false regardless from the fact that it is individuated by the
indexical term. This would be clear if one thinks to some counterfactual
statements. For instance, the sentence “I could have been remained silent
now” is true, even if the referent of the term “I” is individuated by the fact
that I have actually spoken. If the character of the term “I” had entered the
truth condition of the sentence, then that would have been false (Kaplan
1989a, 498).
Thus, the rule individuates a referent given a context, and then the truth
of the sentence is evaluated directly for that referent. After the
individuation, the rule plays no further role (Kaplan 1989a, 523).
In Kaplan’s theory there are therefore two essential distinctions: that
between character and content (Kaplan 1989a, 500-507) and that between
context of utterance and context of evaluation (Kaplan 1989a, 522-523).
The character is the descriptive meaning of the term, while the content is
what is evaluated as true or false. The character is not the content: it
individuates the content. Different kinds of terms have different ways to
individuate a content; in the case of indexicals, it individuates a content
given a context of utterance. In Kaplan’s word, a character is a function
from context of utterance to content:
CHARACTER (+ context of utterance) → CONTENT
From its side, a content is a function from context of evaluation to
extension:
CONTENT (+ context of evaluation) → EXTENSION
There are therefore two contexts which have two very different functions.
The context of utterance is essential to determine the referent of the
indexical expression, but does not necessarily enter into the truth conditions
of the sentence. The sentence “I could have been in Paris” is being uttered in
240
the present moment, but it is not evaluated in regard to the context of
utterance. It is evaluated in regard to a possible word which constitutes the
context of evaluation.
Kaplan’s theory draws also a crucial distinction between pure indexicals
and true demonstratives (Kaplan 1989a, 492). The main difference between
the two classes of terms is that the referent of pure indexicals depends
exclusively on the character and the context, while a true demonstrative can
fix a referent only when accompanied by an act of indication (for example,
the act of pointing a finger). Moreover, demonstratives are usually
accompanied by a description and the referred object is the individual who
shows the appearance given by the description from the here-and-now
perspective: the standard form for demonstration is “the individual which
has the appearance A from here now” (Kaplan 1989a, 524-526). “A
demonstrative associates therefore the appearance of an object with the
indexically specified direction in which to look for that object” (Kaplan
1989a, 524). A demonstrative with the wrong kind of demonstratum (for
example, saying “that pen” while pointing to a pencil) is vacuous (Kaplan
1989a, 490). Another difference with indexicals lies in the fact that
demonstratives behave differently in regards to counterfactual: “Contrary to
indexicals, the same demonstration (indication of an individual that looks
so-and-so from here now) may present a different demonstratum, if
differently located” (Kaplan 1989a, 526). However, this sensitivity to
counterfactual situation regards the fixation of the referent and not the
evaluation of the truth value: the latter, as with indexicals, occurs in
reference to the demonstratum which was actually referred to. Briefly, the
demonstration introduces a further step of determination besides the two
already seen for indexicals (character and content). The reference is not
fixed by the demonstration, but by the demonstration in context (Kaplan
1989a, 527; Kaplan 1989b, 588).
Demonstratives:
1° Step: Description + Demonstration → Character
2° Step: Character + Context → Content
3° Step: Content + Circumstance of Evaluation → Extension
Kaplan’s theory and the four cases of uncertainty
Kaplan’s theory is remarkably complete and suitable to explain most of the
characters of indexicals and demonstratives. Yet, it is not completely
successful in the treatment of the four cases of uncertainties:
1. Kaplan does not handle the question of the vague boundaries of some
indexicals. Therefore, the exact determination of the referent remains
unfulfilled by the combination of character and context and needs further
241
information or pragmatic considerations in order to pinpoint the exact
referent.
2. The application to possible or fictional worlds is more compelling.
Although he does not explicitly treat this case, his overall theory seems to
deny the very possibility. In Afterthoughts Kaplan states that the actual
world is an essential aspect of the context; the context, in fact, is selected by
a sort of indexical operator: “it is actually the case that...” (Kaplan 1989b,
594ff). So, every use of an index is centred in the actual world. This
presents two problems. First, the indexical reference is based on the context
of utterance, but this is on its side selected by an indexical operator: the
functioning seems to be circular. Second, it is incompatible with the use of
indexicals in fictional contexts. Perhaps the latter use could be considered as
a particular case, ruled by pragmatic conditions and not by the normal
semantics for indexicals. It would be preferable, however, to have an
account of the semantics of indexicals which could work the same way in
every use of it.
3. The case of the use of wrong descriptions seems to be considered by
Kaplan as a misaimed demonstrative which does not fulfil its function: in
fact, he states that a demonstrative with the wrong kind of demonstratum is
vacuous (Kaplan 1989a, 490). There seems to be a sort of “all or nothing”
presupposition: either a description is true for the object or it is nothing at
all towards the object. The consideration of Peirce’s theory will show that a
third alternative is possible.
4. The latter case (use of referential definite description) is the most
interesting one, because Kaplan explicitly treats it and because he is induced
to change his theory. In Afterthougts he considers the case, described by
Donellan, of someone who refers to someone else present in the context
using a wrong description3 (Kaplan 1989b, 582-584). This case let Kaplan
think that the referent is determined by the directing intention aimed at the
perceived object4. He claims that the description plays no semantical role at
all, and likewise the demonstration (in the case of actual demonstratives)
has no semantical role. “In both cases [the demonstration and the
description] the referent is properly determined by the perceptual intention.
In neither case is anything semantical at stake in the description or the
pointing” (Kaplan 1989b, 584.). This leads to a set of questions: how can an
intention be a semantical element? Would it not risk a subjectivist concept
3
The example he proposes is as follows: suppose that there is a man at a party who is
holding a Martini glass; one person asks another “Who is the man who is drinking
Martini?”. Suppose that the man is not drinking Martini but another, similarly looking
beverage. In this case, the description is incorrect, there is no demonstration, but still that
man is the correct referent of the expression.
4
“I am now inclined to regard the directing intention, at least in the case of perceptual
demonstratives, as criterial, and to regard the demonstration as a mere externalization of
this inner intention” (Kaplan 1989b, 583)
242
of semantics, undermining therefore the communicability of meaning?
Moreover, if the intention is aimed at the perceived object, then the
apprehension of this object must come first; some qualities of it must be
individuated. The “intending thought” has some content, which is linked
with the description one chooses to use: why, then, must the description be
considered as wholly foreign to the semantics of the term? In other words,
the intention is directed to an object which appears so-and-so: a description
which is linked with this appearance can be considered to express somehow
the directing thought and therefore to play a semantical role. To reach this
conclusion two conditions must be abided by: first, it must be showed how a
false description can be linked to a perceptual appearance; second, the
context of communication must be taken into consideration, in order to
show how a speaker can use a description to express his intending thought
in such a way that a listener can reconstruct the latter starting from the
former. Kaplan’s theory shows no awareness of this and the reference to the
“intending thought” seems an ad hoc adjustment to deal with a problem
which the general theory has not taken into account. Moreover Kaplan was
well aware of certain “unease” in its treatment, which his theory is incapable
to reduce or account for:
The problem, in a nutshell, is that where demonstratives are involved, it
doesn’t seem possible to avoid equivocation. There is an understood,
harmless, systematic equivocation built into the semantics of
demonstratives in natural languages (Kaplan 1989b, 590).
3. Peirce’s theory: Indexicals as semiotical tools to gain acquaintance
The semiotical theory of indexicals
The second theory which will be presented, based on Peirce’s work on
indexicals, will show a semantic account of all indexical and demonstrative
terms that contains a clear-cut space in which this “systematic” uncertainty
intervenes, and will also show which processes are required in order to
handle this uncertainty. In other words, it will be illustrated how the process
of determining the referent goes necessarily through at least one step in
which a potential uncertainty can be reduced using further information that
is taken from the co-text (the rest of the sentence in which the term appears)
and the context.
Peirce’s theory is semiotical: it does not handle just indexical terms but
also indexical signs. It is wider in scope5. An indexical sign is defined as a
sign whose connection with the object is represented is based on a causal
5
For a general analysis, see Atkin 2005.
243
and/or a spatio-temporally determined relation (Peirce 1931-1958, Vol. 2,
143). The connection can be due either to spatiotemporal contiguity (the
pointing of a finger) or to a causal relation (the smoke as index of the fire).
Linguistic indexical terms are a subset of the class of indexical signs. The
utterance of an indexical term, in fact, is a single event which has a
determined spatio-temporal relation with a context: the term gets its
reference through this relation.
An indexical sign can refer only to an object to which the user can have
an independent access (Peirce 1931-1958, Vol. 8, 242). In the case of an
indexical relation based on spatio-temporal contiguity, the ‘independent
access’ means that the user knows the position of the object relative to his
own; in the case of an index based on a causal relation, the ‘independent
access’ means that a user who knows the causal law at work in the situation
can infer the referred object starting from the indexical sign (he can infer the
fire from the smoke). Thus, the ‘independent access’ can also be the result
of a process of inquiry.
As a consequence, the sign’s user must have acquaintance with some
information pertaining the object; otherwise he would not be able to use the
index correctly. He can be acquainted with the object or with the spatiotemporal context in which the object exists. Or else he can be acquainted
with the causal connection existing between a certain kind of phenomenon
and a certain object: this kind of acquaintance grounds the use of indices to
denote objects which are not directly accessible. An example of the latter
can be a weathercock. The first kind of indices are called designators, the
second kind are called reagents (Peirce 1931-1958, Vol. 8, 241).
Different kinds of indices
The field of indexical signs is very general and can be divided into a number
of subclasses. All these subclasses are unified by the core condition of
indices, namely that they refer to individual entities, existing in a single
place and time, through a relation which is determined spatio-temporally.
The most important classification of indexical signs is the following (Peirce
1931-1958, Vol. 2, 189 and 191-192):
1. An Index, proper speaking, is a sign which is in real connection (i.e.
causal relation or contiguity) with its object. Typical examples are a
weathercock, a thermometer, a milestone; they all are individual things.
2. There are signs that are, as such, not individual things but terms; they are
indexical if a single utterance of them is in real connection with an object.
They are called Sub-Indices. Every single utterance of them constitutes a
different connection and can be therefore considered as a different sign: they
refer only when uttered. Indexical terms belong to this class.
3. Finally, there are the Precepts. They are signs that have no real
connection with their objects but furnish instructions about how to act in
244
order to gain connection with an object (Peirce 1931-1958, Vol. 2, 189).
They are only derivatively indexical: they are usually signs of another
nature which are used as indices. The real connection lies in the
acquaintance with the object that one can get if one follows the instructions
(Atkin 2005, 174). An example could be “The brightest object visible from
Earth”: semantically speaking, it is a description which contains no
indexical element; but it functions as a set of instruction to get a perceptual
acquaintance (that is, a real connection) with an object. Referential definite
descriptions belong to this class.
For the author´s purpose the distinction between ‘sub-indices’ and
‘precepts’ is relevant. The former include terms whose semantics rules the
connection between context of utterance and reference; the latter, on the
contrary, are terms whose semantics does not need to be explicitly indexical,
since their ‘indexical function’ is due to the operations that they prescribe. It
shall be reminded that Kaplan was induced to modify his theory of
demonstratives by the difficulty of applying it to the case of referential
definite descriptions: Peirce’s account can suggest a way in which the two
questions can be handled separately. A demonstrative could be considered
as a sub-index whose ‘real connection’ is given by the act of indication (as
in Kaplan’s original theory), while a referential definite description could be
considered as a precept which suggests the listener a way to obtain
acquaintance with the intended object. This happens by interpreting the
description not as a set of necessary and sufficient condition, but rather as a
set of clues.
The internal structure of indices: The two-factor theory of indexical signs
At this point, also the internal structure of the index needs to be taken into
consideration. An index, in fact, must have a sort of representative
constituent, that is another semiotic function which Peirce calls ‘Icon’ 6 ,
which represents what the referred object must look like.
A genuine Index and its Object must be existent individuals (whether
things or facts) […]. But since every individual must have characters, it
follows that a genuine Index may contain a Firstness, and so an Icon is a
constituent part of it (Peirce 1931-1958, Vol. 2, 160).
For example, a term like “now” does not only indicate what kind of relation
exists between the context of utterance and the intended ‘object’, but it also
describes what kind of object we are speaking of: a moment of time. In this
way, terms like “now”, “here” and “I” are all distinguished by their
representative (or iconic) content, although they are based on the same
6
See Peirce 1931-1958, Vol. 2, 143 and 156-160.
245
contiguity. The same holds for proper indices: a weathercock shows the
direction of the wind, to which it is connected causally, through a perceptual
(i.e., iconic) device: it says that the direction of the wind looks like the
orientation of the weathercock.
We have thus two factors in every index: an existential component, a
real, spatio-temporally determined connection with the object; and an
informative component, called “Iconicity”.
a. The existential component is based either on an action of the user (a
demonstration, an act of utterance etc.) or on a mechanical compulsion from
the object (this is how a weathercock or a thermometer work); it is
automatic and never fails to indicate, but it is empty of information;
b. The informational component is an amount of information which can
also be increased, as it will be showed; very often its introduction is
inferential (for example, the fire as ‘suggested’ by the presence of smoke),
and therefore fallible; in many cases it is based on perceptual appearance.
Peirce suggests another distinction related to this two-factors theory: that
between a genuine index, that is an index which possesses both factor and
has therefore an informative value (i.e. “this book”) and a degenerate index,
an index which possesses only the existential component and merely fixes
the spatio-temporal location of the phenomenon (i.e. “look here!”) (Peirce
1931-1958, Vol. 5, 51). Indexical terms as defined in this paper are all
genuine indices, which are supposed to contain enough information to
identify the object.
The use of indexicals, according to Peirce’s account, is thus strongly
related to the processes of gaining information. The very identification of
the intended object can be considered as a gain of information (Atkin 2005,
164). This process is not merely semantical but involves a cognitive aspect
as well. One needs not only to master semantical rules but also to find a way
to get an acquaintance with the object, which could be either a direct
perceptual access or an indirect access based on some instructions or
informative clues. Briefly, the gaining of an acquaintance with the object is
the aim of the indexical sign (Peirce, 1931-1958, vol. 8, 42-44) which can be
reached essentially by resorting to two modalities:
- Traceability: starting from a spatio-temporal position (the context of
utterance or another chosen point of observation), it allows one to reach
another spatio-temporal position:
- Informational gain7: given a perceptual appearance and an acquaintance
with laws of causation, it allows one to identify the inaccessible cause of a
phenomenon (it is indexical so far both the perceptual appearance and the
“Traceability” and “informational gain” are not terms used by Peirce, who does not
explicitly theorize them. They are a proposal of classification for processes that Peirce
describes unsystematically.
7
246
identified cause are concrete individuals, whose existence is accessible to
the sign’s user).
Each Kaplanian character of a pure indexical is a clear example of
traceability: it uses the context of utterance as a spatio-temporal starting
point to reach an object through its location relative to this starting point.
Although it is true that usually a Kaplanian pure indexical contains also an
informative content, this is quite fixed in every utterance of the term (every
utterance of “I” refers to a person); so it does not require a process of
informational gain, but simply an acquaintance with the meaning of the
term.
An example of “informational gain” given by Peirce could be the
following:
I see a man with a rolling gait. This is a probable indication that he is a
sailor. I see a bowlegged man in corduroys, gaiters, and a jacket. These
are probable indications that he is a jockey or something or the sort
(Peirce 1931-1958, Vol.2, 160).
Pure informational gain consists therefore in the use of clues to infer the
nature of something. It is important to stress that it can work also
backwards, for example when a referential definite description is used in
communication. The listener uses the description “drinking Martini”, used
by the utterer, to infer some perceptual element, for example “holding a
Martini glass”, that can be observed personally.
A true demonstrative is an example of both modalities: it needs a
demonstration, which gives the direction in which to look and therefore sets
in motion a process of traceability; and it needs a description, from which
informative clues for the right identification of the object can be inferred.
An interesting example is given by Peirce (Peirce 1931-1958, Vol.2, 137138):
Two men are standing on the seashore looking out to sea. One of them
says to the other, “That vessel there carries no freight at all, but only
passengers”. Now, if the other, himself, sees no vessel, the first
information he derives from the remark has for its Object the part of the
sea that he does see, and informs him that a person with sharper eyes than
his […] can see a vessel there; and then, that vessel having been
introduced to his acquaintance, he is prepared to receive the information
about it that is carries passengers exclusively.
Two consequences can be drawn from this example. First, in a
communicative context it is not necessary that both persons have the same
acquaintance with the object: the information that one gets perceptually can
247
be introduced in the other’s cognitive status inferentially or by description;
the crucial point is that the listener can trace back the new information to
some previous knowledge to which he refers to indexically. Second, the
reference of an indexical term (at least, a complex one which involves also a
descriptive part) can also be indirect and mediated by inferential steps;
moreover, those inferential steps can depend also on some part of the co-text
(the sentence in which the term appears). All inferred information is relative
to the same point of space-time, and this guarantees the sameness of the
resulting reference.
4.
Peirce’s and Kaplan’s theory face the four uncertainties.
The solution of the difficulties pertaining the demonstratives
At this point, the cases of uncertainties can be solved.
The inferential character of the ‘informational gain’ can help us to solve
the problem of incorrect descriptions. A demonstrative including an
incorrect description, or even a referential definite description, can
nevertheless refer to the intended object if:
1. the description can be inferentially introduced starting from the
perceptual appearance of the object, even if without certainty;
2. the listener can trace back the perceptual appearance from the description,
thus becoming capable to identify the object in the context autonomously.
In Kaplan’s example, the incorrect description “the man who drinks
Martini”, was introduced not only because the perceptual appearance
suggested strongly that conclusion, but also because the speaker was well
aware (for some shared social competence) that the hearer could understand
which perceptual elements must be sought given that description (a man
holding a glass with a certain form, containing a colorless liquid etc.). Using
Peirce’s account, we can conclude that the referential definite description
refers to the object neither because it is true of it, nor because it merely
expresses the intention of the speaker, but because it is a valid set of
instructions to identify the object perceptually (with a certain degree of
confidence yet not with absolute certainty). It is a valid Precept.
The solution of the problems pertaining the pure indexicals: vague
boundaries
The solution of the problems linked with the indexicals (the vague
boundaries and the application to fictional words) is not so immediate. It
requires the comparison of Kaplan’s theory with a characterization of the
semantics of indexicals which is not directly given by Peirce but which can
be constructed starting from his account.
248
Kaplanian indexicals
1.1 In Kaplan’s theory a character is a rule to go from a context of utterance
to an object;
↓
1.2 The rule prescribes a fixed relation between the context of utterance and
the position of the object;
↓
1.3 There is therefore no semantical space for uncertainty;
↓
1.4 The fixation of the reference occurs before the sentence is evaluated:
The co-text has therefore no role in fixing the reference.
Peircean indexicals
2.1 The general meaning of a Sub-Index or a Precept (i.e., a linguistic index)
can be seen as a rule to go from a point of observation to the acquaintance
with an object;
↓
2.2 The reaching of this acquaintance can require some inferential step;
↓
2.3 The inferential steps can have a certain degree of uncertainty; the
semantical space for uncertainty lies therefore in the gap between the
information given by the term alone and the information required for a
successful identification;
↓
2.4 Some added information may be required to fix the reference; the cotext can be one of the sources for this information.
The case of the vague boundaries is thus easily resolved. In Kaplan’s theory,
it must be considered just as a pragmatic question which is not mirrored in
the semantic functioning of the character. In a Peircean theory, on the
contrary, it is a semantic question, in so far a term with a vague boundary
like “here” requires a certain amount of information to fix the reference but
actually gives only a part of this information, requiring (as a further
necessary condition) an implementation from other sources before the
semantic function of fixing the reference can be considered to be complete.
The solution of the problems pertaining the pure indexicals: the shift of
point of observation
Finally, the shift of the point of observation shall be taken into
consideration, for example when an index is used in a fictional world.
249
1.1 As already said, Kaplan seems to deny this possibility: the fixation of
the referent for every indexical starts with the context of utterance, which is
selected by the indexical operator “it is actually the case that...”, which he
considers as presupposed by the use of every indexical term8.
↓
1.2 Therefore, the indexicals presuppose the centering in the actual world:
the handling of fictional works is excluded by the semantic account of those
terms.
2.1 In Peirce’s theory the actual world is not presupposed by the index, it is
selected by it9. Using an index, one performs an act, and this act necessarily
takes place in the actual world (Peirce 1982-forthcoming, Vol. 5, 225)10.
↓
2.2 The actuality of the world is given just by the performance of an act of
utterance, and not by a semantical element (as the presupposed indexical
operator in Kaplan’s account). The semantics of the term simply prescribes
how to reach an acquaintance of the object within the context of the so
selected world.
↓
2.3 Since the selection of the world is performative, in presence of suitable
conventions (for example narrative conventions)11 it is possible to perform
an act which selects another world (“Once upon a time...”). Within this
world, the semantics of indexicals works the same way to reach an
acquaintance with the object starting from the point of observation which
was so performatively constructed.
Briefly, in Peirce’s account the fixation of the reference occurs, as in
Kaplan’s theory, through semantical rules (a “character”) which prescribe
how to get to the object from a starting point. Yet, in Kaplan’s theory the
starting point is presupposed as centered in the actual world; on the
contrary, given the Peircean theory of the performative selection of the
world, the starting point is constructed by the very act of uttering an
indexical term, and it can be the actual world or another world if an element
is previously given which makes the performative act one of “setting the
scene” (Castañeda 1989, 79.).
8
As already mentioned, this line of reasoning contains a risk of circularity.
“The universe which is the real subject of discourse can only be pointed out – never
described... Such showing or pointing out consists in putting me into a physical connection
with the thing signified” (Peirce 1982-, Vol. 5, 111); See also Peirce 1982-, Vol. 5, 223225.
10
The actuality of the world is (performatively) implied by the actuality of the act, and so
no circularity occurs here.
11
See for example Castañeda’s account of narrative setting (Castañeda 1989, 79).
9
250
If the semantic rule according to Kaplan is:
(1)
Context of utterance [+ Character] → (2) Object,
a modified version of it which takes Peirce’s account into consideration
could be:
(1) Act of utterance [performatively selects] → (2) Point of observation [+
Character] → (3) Object.
The semantical space to handle the second case of uncertainty lies in the
step from (1) to (2); a piece of information in the co-text (for example, a
narrative device) can let us interpret the performative act not as selecting the
actual world, but as selecting a possible one.
5.
Conclusion
While in Kaplan’s theory there seems to be no way to understand how the
semantics of indexicals can give reason of the four cases of uncertainty,
Peirce’s account does suggest a way. Indexical terms are directly referential
because they are based on a spatio-temporally located act of utterance, but
can be underdetermined because they have an informative content which is
required to identify the object, and the content explicitly stated by the term
alone might not be sufficient to perform this task. The completing
information, nevertheless, is inferentially implied by the term. An index
with vague boundaries calls for a focusing by its very meaning. The
character of every indexical traces objects within a context which is selected
by the act of performing it, and it is not semantically excluded that this
context can exist in a fictional world, provided that a linguistic clue is given
to decide that this is the case. An incorrect description is nevertheless
‘indexically referential’ if it works well as precept to identify something,
provided that some inference from the content to its perceptual premise is
possible and that the perceptual premise is indexically traceable.
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33: 471-486.
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