Coordinating Eldercare in the Community

MASAYA SHIMMEI
Acta Universitatis Tamperensis 2145
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community MASAYA SHIMMEI
Coordinating Eldercare
in the Community
Care management as a mode
to implement welfare mix in Japan
AUT 2145
MASAYA SHIMMEI
Coordinating Eldercare
in the Community
Care management as a mode
to implement welfare mix in Japan
ACADEMIC DISSERTATION
To be presented, with the permission of
the Board of the School of Social Sciences and Humanities
of the University of Tampere,
for public discussion in the lecture hall Linna K 103,
Kalevantie 5, Tampere,
on 18 March 2016, at 12 o’clock.
UNIVERSITY OF TAMPERE
MASAYA SHIMMEI
Coordinating Eldercare
in the Community
Care management as a mode
to implement welfare mix in Japan
Acta Universitatis Tamperensis 2145
Tampere University Press
Tampere 2016
ACADEMIC DISSERTATION
University of Tampere
School of Social Sciences and Humanities
Finland
The originality of this thesis has been checked using the Turnitin OriginalityCheck service
in accordance with the quality management system of the University of Tampere.
Copyright ©2016 Tampere University Press and the author
Cover design by
Mikko Reinikka
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Acta Universitatis Tamperensis 2145
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ISSN 1455-1616
Acta Electronica Universitatis Tamperensis 1644
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Painotuote
This book is dedicated to my parents,
Masayuki and Atsuko Shimmei
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study began in the early days of a new social security program in Japan, a chaotic
time that was also full of hope and innovation. It was concluded when the program had
matured enough to need fundamental reform. This study required me to examine the
developments in my native country, Japan, from an objective and distant viewpoint, and
I could not have completed it without the rigorous discussions inside and outside the
country. I would like to thank all those I encountered during this study for their support
and inspiration.
First, I would like to thank the interviewees who are mentioned anonymously in the
text. Without their personal stories as elderly care experts and human beings it would
be impossible to capture the essence of the analysis of the Long-Term Care Insurance
program and care management. It seemed as if light rays from various directions met
at a single point to create a spectrum. Different threads of stories were woven into one
piece of text. With the interviewees, I often shared the moments of not only irritation
and struggle, but also empathy and sympathy. It was indeed an experience of treasuring
every unique meeting that we had. I owe very much to pre-examiners: Sari Rissanen
from University of Eastern Finland and Teppo Kröger from University of Jyväskylä.
Without your constructive comments, this work would not have had the present shape.
Also, it is my great honor to have Sari as an opponent. Thank you very much for taking
the role.
My utmost gratitude goes to my supervisors Jorma Sipilä and Tarja Pösö. Jorma,
who exposed me to the world of ‘critical’ social policy, especially social care research,
was always tolerant of my slow progress. Tarja introduced me to the world of qualitative
research through the question, ‘What is a theoretically-sound and ethical approach for
social work that takes clients into full consideration’? Without these two professors, I
would not have been able to reach the point where my studies of policies and practices
could be fused. When I expressed my desire to undertake such a study, Mikko Mäntysaari
provided valuable suggestions concerning the administrations and organisations for
social work. I would like to express special gratitude to Satu Ylinen who, despite fighting
an illness, enlightened me to the critical approaches to gerontology.
University of Tampere was where I learned how to forge myself in the true sense.
Tolerance and freedom are the two main characteristics describing Tampere. However,
to enjoy tolerance and freedom fully, one needs to challenge oneself to do the maximum
and think independently. I realized this every time I visited Tampere. The members of
the Faculty of Social Work—including Kyösti Raunio, Kirsi Juhila, and Anna Metteri—
assisted me during my two long-term stays in Tampere by providing the research space
and guidance on reference materials. I learned a lot from Hannele Forsberg about
ethnomethodology and organisational research. My colleagues at the Doctoral seminar
of Social Work shared comments and advice that have indeed become the skeleton and
meat of my study. I would like to thank Regina Opoku, Rosi Enroos, Sirpa Saario, Miguel
Marrengula, Jenni Mari Räsänen, Emma Vanhanen, Sinikka Forsman, Kaisa-Elina
Kiuru, Judit Strömpl, Satu Ranta-Tyrkkö, Tarja Vierula, and Kris Clarke. In particular,
I express my special thanks to Kris, who dedicated her time to edit this dissertation. I
would also like to thank my friends at Social Research academics in Tampere: Anneli
Anttonen, Pertti Koistinen, and Minna Zechner. Ever since we met 20 years ago, they
extended their support to me whenever I visited Finland.
The practical experiences with the Sawayaka Welfare Foundation (SWF) gave
me an eye-opening perception about systematically organizing non-profit activities
that were vital to my research. With the SWF, I had the opportunities to observe the
implementation of the Long-Term Care Insurance program as well as the evolution of
NPOs at the beginning of the program. I owe much to the founder of the SWF, Tsutomu
Hotta, and to Tamaki Nara (who has left the foundation and is engaged in social
activities). I was a simple young man with little experience, but they gave me many
chances to be involved in and learn from their social programs and surveys, and they
also guided me in the field of care policy development. Even after I left the foundation,
they supported me in various ways and helped me with my research projects. I must
thank my former colleague at the SWF, Isamu Kihara with whom I made many attempts
and experienced many challenges in conducting surveys.
At the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology (TMIG), I learned the
fundamentals of gerontology and empirical research. I would like to thank Hiroshi
Shibata for providing me with the opportunity to take my first steps as a researcher.
Takao Suzuki made me recognize how the research findings influenced the policy.
Former vice-director, Ryutaro Takahashi gave me constructive criticism and provided
me with the support that was essential to the completion of this dissertation. I am very
fortunate to have received the guidance from Hidehiro Sugisawa, Yoko Sugihara, and
Yomei Nakatani, the leading figures in the field of social gerontology in Japan. The
Human Care Research team of the TMIG, headed by Tatsuro Ishizaki, is indeed the hub
of multi-disciplinary researchers, and daily interactions with these researchers taught
me a lot.
By participating in the joint research projects with researchers from abroad, I had
great opportunities to recognize Japan’s particularities from etic and emic points of view.
At the Japan-US LTC research group, Yuko Suda, gave me a thorough presentation of
the theoretical methods of organisational research and provided psychological support.
John Campbell shared great ideas on policy learning and implementation at the micro
level, through research on local LTCI administration. He also invited me to seminars
held at the University of Tokyo that greatly sustained my motivation for research. I also
gained unique perspective on social welfare, anthropology, and gerontology from Yuji
Izumo, Masaki Nishimura, Ruth Campbell, and Suzan Long. Using her broad network
in practical areas, Hiroko Kodama introduced me to a number of very cooperative
individuals whom I interviewed during the fieldwork. Yoshiko Yamada helped me
translate the interviewees’ statements into English without losing nuance and context.
It was my pleasure to make the acquaintance of research colleagues at the Working
Carers-Caring Workers (WoCaWo) project conducted by Teppo Kröger and Sue
Yeandle. By associating with international scholars, I have learned a lot and improved
my understanding of care, the issues related to the employment of care workers, and
care policies. Frank Wang’s dissertation gave me a new perspective on the significance
of care management idea.
In addition, at the Nordic-Baltic PhD Course, Synnöve Karvinen Niinikoski, from
the University of Helsinki, gave me fruitful comments on the study. Also, special thanks
to Ken Harada, Shizuko Yanagisawa, Mio Ota, Ender Ricart, and Jun Shirato, who
provided me with the information and valuable comments during the study.
Let me thank all who have warmly encouraged me, sometimes urged me, and
frequently provided the necessary support to keep me on the track of academic life.
Especially, I would like to thank my family: my mother Atsuko, sister Yuka, and brother
Hideki. I sincerely thank Koji Gocho, my personal mentor and a genuine healer. As
my late father Masayuki’s friend, Dr. Gocho warmly encouraged me and sometimes
urged me strictly to proceed with the academic journey. I also would like to express
my gratitude to my friends, especially Hideshige Steve Saito, my friend for over 20
years, and his wife, Hiromi. Without Saito’s heartfelt support and friendship, my life
could not have started a new. I also would like to thank Yuki Misawa for warmhearted
encouragement and care during the hard times.
Finally, let me conclude the acknowledgements by remembering the Great East Japan
Earthquake that occurred on 11 March 2011. I cannot conclude the acknowledgements
without mentioning this tragedy, which happened in the last drafting stage of the
dissertation and exposed me, both personally and professionally, to new experience and
thoughts that have added different dimensions to my journey. I have learned from the
interviews with the rescuers at the disaster-affected area that the care managers have
been bending over backward for their clients. I would like to take this opportunity to
offer my most sincere prayer for the repose of the souls of those who perished and pay
my tribute to the survivors who have continued their efforts to restore their lives and
communities.
This study was partially sponsored by JSPS KAKANHI Grant Number 12345678, Grantin-Aid for Scientific Research ©.
ABSTRACT
The study examines the recent policy reforms in eldercare in Japan focusing on the
welfare mix approach aiming to change the mode of care production. Long-term care
(LTC) policies share certain commonalities even when implemented in different nationstates. States enact and introduce similar systems, sometimes by imitating or taking
examples from the practices of other states. Using the concept of policy learning, it is
argued that the welfare mix approaches and the care management concept introduced
in the LTC in Japan are learned in global contexts but possible impacts can be expected
to vary. In particular, the variations are attributable to the implementation process that
has been affected by the translation process of learned policy into expertise.
Japan adopted the welfare mix approach for the Long-Term Care Insurance (LTCI)
to respond to rapidly increasing social care needs. The institution of care management
was introduced as a solution to coordinate fragmented resources as well as to encourage
purchase-provider integration. As a result, most of the care managers are affiliated with
service providers such as commercial business, non-profit and quasi-public providers
called social welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin). In the restricted institutional
arena, it is assumed that care managers in Japan are acting as street-level bureaucrats
to implement politically defined multiple objectives required in the current LTC policy
and to develop their own sense of ‘care management’. Based on a narrative analysis of
interviews with 17 care managers in Japan, this study reveals that the essence of Japanese
paradigm of care management is, in fact, professional realignment. Care managers are
actually frontline workers whose particular task is to mix care that can be provided
not only by health and social care organisations but also by families. To complete this
assignment, care managers have to function as experts, bureaucrats, entrepreneurs and
confidants.
Care managers in Japan are experiencing complex mixtures of dilemmas. The
process of implementation is accomplished by the emotional sacrifices made by each
care manager. The basis of complex sets of dilemmas stem from the eclectic use of
policy concepts and the language use surrounding care management tasks: Professional
vocabularies imported by learning, and the process of interpreting such terms were
affected by local political and cultural contexts. Care managers struggle to build their
identity amidst the tensions between statutory and normative care management.
Care managers are individuals who actively interpret different principles mediated
by organisational and societal structures. They are continuously required to negotiate
between various professional knowledge bases. The potential consequences of such
realignments may result in the high turnover of professionals and de-professionalisation.
The Japanese experience teaches us that such a realignment is accomplished by policy
learning as a mode of political process, which conceals the lack of necessary service
provision. The study argues that in the era of globalising networks of policy makers,
the role of social work researchers is to critically evaluate imported and mixed ideas
in the light of ethical requirements. Describing the impacts of the welfare mix on care
management practice clarify the mechanism of such policy orientations and contributes
to emancipate human service professionals from being unintentionally mobilised for
ethically problematic objectives.
KEY WORDS: eldercare, long-term care, long-term care insurance, welfare mix, care
management, policy learning, implementation, professionalism, street-level bureaucracy,
narrative, Japan
TIIVISTELMÄ
Tutkin erityisesti palvelun tuottajuuteen liittyvien kysymysten näkökulmasta Japanin
viimeaikaisia poliittisia reformeja, joilla on pyritty muuttamaan vanhusten hoivan
tuottamisen tapaa. Eri maissa suoritetuissa pitkäaikaishoidon politiikkareformeissa on
tiettyjä yhteisiä piirteitä. Valtiot päättävät käynnistää verrattain samankaltaisia järjestelmiä ja ottavat toisinaan esimerkkiä toisten maiden kokemuksista. Japani on omaksunut pitkäaikaishoivan järjestämiseen monituottajuutta korostavan lähestymistavan ja
yksilökohtaisen palveluohjauksen käsitteen globaaleissa yhteyksissä tapahtuneen poliittisen oppimisen tuloksena, mutta mallien ja käsitteiden omaksumisen seuraukset ovat
tuskin kaikkialla samat. Erot syntyvät erityisesti täytäntöönpanossa, kun poliittisen
oppimisen tulokset käännetään asiantuntijuudeksi.
Japani omaksui monituottajamalliin perustuvan hoivavakuutuksen vastatakseen
nopeasti kasvaviin hoivapalvelun tarpeisiin. Yksilökohtainen palveluohjaus tuotiin
edesauttamaan hajanaisten resurssien koordinointia ja edistämään tilaaja-tuottajamallin käyttöönottoa. Sen seurauksena useimmat palveluohjaajat ovat työsuhteessa yrityksiin, järjestöihin tai puolijulkisiin palvelutuottajiin. Ajatuksena on, että palveluohjaajat
toimivat ruohonjuuritason byrokraatteina heille annetussa ahtaassa institutionaalisessa
tilassa toteuttamassa poliittisesti määritettyjä pitkäaikaishoidon tavoitteita ja samalla
kehittävät omaa tapaansa toimia palveluohjaajina. Haastatelujen analysoinnin keskeinen tulos on, että japanilaisen palveluohjausmallin olennainen ominaisuus on ammattien uudelleenjärjestely. Palveluohjaajat ovat itse asiassa eturintaman työntekijöitä,
joiden erityinen tehtävä on yhdistellä terveys- ja sosiaalipalveluorganisaatioiden sekä
perheiden tuottamaa hoivaa. Tämän tehtävän suorittamiseksi palveluohjaajien on toimittava sekä asiantuntijoina, byrokraatteina, yrittäjinä että uskottuina läheisinä.
Japanilaiset palveluohjaajat kohtaavat ongelmavyyhden, jonka vuoksi hoivavakuutuksen täytäntöönpano vaatii heiltä emotionaalisia uhrauksia. Yksi ongelmien alkulähde on hoivaohjaukseen liittyvä eklektinen terminologia: ulkomailta opittuja ammatillisia puhetapoja tulkitaan paikallisissa poliittisissa ja kulttuurisissa ympäristöissä.
Hoivaohjaajat rakentavat identiteettiään ympäristössä, jossa ohjausta koskevat säädökset ja normit, ammatillisessa koulutuksessa syntynyt asiantuntijuus sekä yritystalouden
vaatimukset ovat jännitteisessä suhteessa toisiinsa. Heidän on omin voimin kyettävä
tulkitsemaan erilaisia organisatorisia ja yhteiskunnallisia periaatteita ja käymään neuvotteluja erilaisten ammatillisten tietoperustojen välimaastossa. Tällaisten järjestelyjen
seurauksina syntyy ammattilaisten korkeaa vaihtuvuutta ja jopa ammatillisuuden katoamista.
Japanin tapauksessa poliittiseen oppimiseen perustuva uudelleen organisointi toteutui prosessissa, joka peitti alleen välttämättömän palvelutarjonnan puutteet. Tutkimus päätyy toteamaan, että aikakautena, jolloin politiikantekijät muodostavat globaaleja verkostoja, on sosiaalityön tutkijoiden syytä arvioida muualta tuotujen ja paikan
päällä sovellettujen ideoiden suhdetta sosiaalityön eettisiin ehtoihin. Toivonkin, että
monituottajamalliin perustuvan palveluohjauksen seurausten kuvaaminen auttaa hoivapalvelujen ammattilaisia välttämään joutumasta eettisesti ongelmallisten tavoitteiden toteuttajiksi vasten omaa tahtoaan.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... 5
Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 9
Tiivistelmä ............................................................................................................................ 11
1
2
3
Introduction .............................................................................................................
1.1 Long-Term Care (LTC), Policy Learning and its Implementation ........
1.2 Theoretical Framework of the Study .........................................................
1.2.1 Policy learning and LTC policy reform .........................................
1.2.2 Balancing service allocation by a changing welfare mix ...........
1.2.3 Neoliberal reform and street-level implementation ....................
1.2.4 Managerialism and professionalism ..............................................
1.2.5 Care work as a gendered labour and an emotional human
conduct ..............................................................................................
1.3 Aim of the Study and Research Questions ...............................................
1.4 Contents of the Study ..................................................................................
Care management: History, Concepts, Models and Relevance to Social
Work ..........................................................................................................................
2.1 History and the Background of Case Management Development .......
2.2 Case/Care Management Models ................................................................
2.2.1 Clinical case management models .................................................
2.2.2 Amalgamating clinical and production models ..........................
2.2.3 Reflecting cultural and political context of case/care
management ......................................................................................
2.3 Case/Care Management, Gerontology and Social Work ........................
‘Care Management’ as an Implementation Tool .................................................
3.1 Macro Institution and Micro Implementation ........................................
3.2 Research Design ...........................................................................................
3.2.1 Policy analysis based on a historical discourse ............................
3.2.2 Developing narratives with care managers in Japan ...................
3.3 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................
19
19
21
21
23
27
29
32
33
35
37
37
41
41
45
47
49
53
53
57
58
60
63
3.4
Constructing, Describing and Interpreting Practices from Care
Managers’ Narratives ..................................................................................
3.4.1 Constructing stories: Process of the fieldwork .............................
3.4.2 Describing narratives .......................................................................
3.4.3 Analysing narrative: An example ..................................................
69
69
75
77
4
Japan’s Search for a Model of Eldercare ................................................................ 86
4.1 Welfare Mix in Pre-War and Wartime Japan .......................................... 86
4.1.1 Early years of welfare mix before 1945 .......................................... 87
4.1.2 Welfare provision at occupation period ........................................ 91
4.2 Evolution of LTC Provision for the Elderly .............................................. 92
4.3 Administrative Reform and New Direction to Develop the LTC ......... 98
4.4 Increasing Demand for Comprehensive LTC ........................................ 101
4.5 Japanese Development of Welfare Mix in Eldercare ............................. 110
5
The Operation of the LTCI System in Japan ......................................................
5.1 The LTCI System: Target population, Eligibility and Benefit ..............
5.2 Administration of the LTCI System ........................................................
5.3 Care Management Functioning ...............................................................
5.4 Revisions of the LTCI System and Fee Schedule Change for Care
Management ...............................................................................................
5.5 Public Response and Debates on the LTCI System ...............................
5.5.1 Debates on the administration of the LTCI system ...................
5.5.2 Demand and supply sides debates on service use ......................
5.5.3 Debating the Japanese paradigm of care management .............
5.6 Care Management as a Tool to Implement Changing Balance of
Welfare Mix in Japan .................................................................................
6
The Tasks of Care Management ..........................................................................
6.1 Central Tasks of Care Management ........................................................
6.2 Variations Among the Roles of Care Management ...............................
6.2.1 The role as an expert ......................................................................
6.2.2 The role as an entrepreneur ..........................................................
6.2.3 The role as a bureaucrat .................................................................
6.3 Variations in Care Management Practices .............................................
6.3.1 Jack-of-all-trades ............................................................................
6.3.2 Errand boy of the local authority .................................................
6.3.3 Control tower of the airport .........................................................
6.3.4 Street-level leadership as delegation ............................................
112
112
116
119
121
125
126
129
136
143
146
146
148
148
149
149
150
151
153
155
159
7
8
9
10
Organisational Attributes and Care Management ...........................................
7.1 Thematic Analysis of Organisational Attributes in ‘Care
Management’ Practice ...............................................................................
7.1.1 The act of profit making as a general requirement in care
management ....................................................................................
7.1.2 Actual/normative care management as an ethical
representation .................................................................................
7.2 Decoupling ‘Clients’ within Organisation/Expertise Chasm ..............
7.2.1 Elderly and their family as clients/service-users/customers .....
7.2.2 Demarcation of public and private responsibilities ...................
7.3 Care Managers’ Anxiety and Behaviour in Conflicting
Organisational Objectives ........................................................................
7.3.1 Anxiety and over-adaptation to procedural ambiguity ............
7.3.2 Technical ambiguity and managerial pressure ..........................
Care Managers’ Practice in Everyday Life .........................................................
8.1 General Description of Care Management as Labour ..........................
8.2 Three Coping Stories of Care Management Practices ..........................
8.2.1 A state of ambivalence towards both the market and
expertise ..........................................................................................
8.2.2 Making a balance within autonomy, workloads and
household ........................................................................................
8.2.3 Making sense of being less authoritative status ........................
Care Management at the Juncture of Expertise, Ethics, Organisation
and Practice ............................................................................................................
9.1 The Basic Structure of the Care Managers’ Narrative .........................
9.2 Institutional Attributes of Care management in Japan ........................
9.2.1 Changing organisations reflecting idea of profit making
and managerialism .........................................................................
9.2.2 The mix of professional expertise ................................................
9.2.3 Attributes of working environment to care management
practices ...........................................................................................
165
165
166
167
170
171
174
176
176
179
184
184
188
188
191
194
200
200
202
203
205
206
Care Management as a Mode of Welfare Mix Implementation ...................... 209
10.1 Policy Learning and the Responsibility Vacuum in LTC Policy
Reform ......................................................................................................... 209
10.2 Implications and Limitations ................................................................... 213
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 218
List of Figures
Figure 5.1. Composition Ratio of Care Management Providers ................................. 138
List of Tables
Table 1.1. Two Different Forms of Professionalism in Knowledge-based Work
by Evetts .................................................................................................................... 31
Table 2.1. Different Approaches of Clinical Models of Case Management ................. 41
Table 2.2. British Paradigm of Care Management Models by Huxley (1993) ............. 46
Table 2.3. Forms of Case Management and their Adaptation in Britain (Payne,
2000, p. 84) ............................................................................................................... 48
Table 3.1. Description of Research Design ....................................................................... 58
Table 3.2. Transitions of Number of Articles on the LTCI of Five Major
Newspapers in Japan (1994–2008) ........................................................................ 60
Table 3.3. Number of Articles on Care Management of Five Major Newspapers
in Japan (1994–2008) ............................................................................................... 60
Table 3.4. Profiles of Care Managers used for the Analysis .......................................... 77
Table 5.1. Fee Schedule Revision for Care Management (1) ........................................ 123
Table 5.2. Fee Schedule Revision for Care Management (2) ........................................ 124
Table 5.3 Additional Fees for Care Management .......................................................... 125
Table 5.4. Number of Care Management Users 2000, 2005, 2006, and 2008 ........... 138
Table 5.5. Description of Monthly Care Management Users by Care Levels
After the 2005 Revision, November (thousands) .............................................. 138
Table 5.6. Number of Working Care Managers Breakdown by Working Hours
and Affiliation (2010) ............................................................................................ 139
Table 5.7. Salary Level of Working Care Managers Compared with Other
Sectors and Occupations (2010) .......................................................................... 140
Table 8.1. Monthly Labour Input per Full-time Care Managers (n=50) .................... 186
List of Transcripts
Transcript 3. Comparison between casework and care management ......................... 81
Transcript 6a. Care manager as Jack-of-all-trades ....................................................... 151
Transcript 6b. Care manager as an errand boy ............................................................ 153
Transcript 6c. Care manager as a control tower in the terminal care settings ......... 155
Transcript 6d. Care manager as a negotiator for a client ............................................. 160
Transcript 6e. Care manager as a community worker ................................................. 161
Transcript 6f. Care manager as a collaborator of the government ............................. 161
Transcript 7a. Ethics of ‘actual’, ‘profit-making’ and ‘normative’ care
management ........................................................................................................... 168
Transcript 7b. Managing profits ..................................................................................... 171
Transcript 7c. Clients-have-to-be-customer-first ......................................................... 173
Transcript 7d. Clients as customers ................................................................................ 175
Transcript 7e. Anxiety and over-adaptation .................................................................. 176
Transcript 7f. Social welfare as a book smart without practice ................................. 180
Transcript 7g. Realistic care management ..................................................................... 181
Transcript 8a. The entrepreneur ...................................................................................... 188
Transcript 8b. Coping strategy to maintain life-work balance ................................... 191
Transcript 8c. Career diversion between the public and the private sectors ............ 195
Transcript 8d. Making sense of career diversion .......................................................... 198
Note
Currency rate for Japanese YEN were converted to Euro as 1 JPY to 0.0079€ based on
the currency rate of April, 2015
1INTRODUCTION
1.1 Long-Term Care (LTC), Policy Learning and its Implementation
This dissertation presents a cultural interpretation of the contemporary Japanese
long-term care (LTC) policy reform; specifically the relevance of care management in
implementing long-term care insurance (LTCI) is examined. It intends to reveal the
cognitive aspects of policy implementation by examining both macro ‘discourses-inpractice’ and micro ‘discursive practices’ (Holstein & Gubrium, 2011, pp. 344) reflecting
everyday practice in implementing a learned policy idea.
A number of governments with increasing eldercare demands have started to
recognise the need for systematic public programs for the LTC. Throughout this
study, the term LTC is treated as a policy or technical term, which is often debated
and negotiated, whereas eldercare expresses a phenomenon of care aiming at elderly
and their family, reflecting a mode of care production itself (see explanation later in
this Chapter 1.2.2). A difficult part of the making of the LTC policy is that social and
health policies are inevitably influenced by the financial and the economic situations
of welfare states (Kautto, 1997). When considering the social service perspective, the
development of social care provision for the elderly has been complex when the LTC
policy has been influenced by larger macroeconomic, rapid demographic and political
change in developing the social service sector. During an era of fiscal austerity, the
cost of eldercare became a burning policy issue among advanced industrial nations
and institutionalisation has been seen as an unsustainable solution because it has been
considered to be inhumane and costly (Means, Richard, & Smith, 2008, pp. 21–31).
In these countries, which share common interests in how to deal with the increasing
needs and demands of the frail elderly and their family carers, ostensibly similar
programs have been introduced. Regardless of the differences in languages, cultures
and policy legacies, debates and policy alternatives in countries which are facing ageing
populations share similar policy/institutional/administrative concepts and terms.
One of the common measures taken in these welfare states was the introduction of
the community care idea based on the partial or full marketisation of social services
(Meagher & Szebehely, 2013). This policy direction altered the role of the state from
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
19
a direct service provider to administrator: The state began to contract out services
to private sector or/and provide cash payments to service users as new form of care
provision. In addition, the idea of community care was proposed as a sound solution to
comply with growing care needs in the community and cost issues of eldercare.
Although the ideas, concepts and terms of LTC policy have been diffused among
welfare states, the policies implemented reveal apparent variations: the dynamics
of policies differ because the process of implementing LTC policy cannot be the
same. Implementing LTC policies not only requires the coordination and funding of
fragmented service resources, but there are also varieties of practice relying on the
cognitive understandings of individual workers. In order to actualise LTC reform
in Anglo-American countries, one of the techniques that has been utilised is care
management. Care management and its predecessor, case management, is a service
aimed at improving quality by balancing limited service resources and service needs
by coordinating the use of services. It has been widely used in eldercare practice mostly
in Anglo-American countries as a key means to arrange the ideal care formation for
frail elderly clients. In community based LTC policy, care managers are regarded as
key implementers, and act as street-level bureaucrats (Lipsky, 1980) who process, shape,
and ultimately construct the content of LTC policy. Yet, it is unclear how these policy
orientations and programs are implemented in the everyday practices of workers who
take the role of implementers (see Holstein, 1992).
Case management or care management is commonly applied in eldercare. The
mandatory Long-Term Care Insurance (LTCI) system of Japan that started in 2000
is an interesting example on how the LTC policies are constructed and implemented
in different ways though similar concepts and vocabularies are used. To increase the
quantity of community-based services, the Japanese LTCI system introduced the
partial privatisation of care provision, which allows care receivers to choose the services
they want from an array of for-profit and non-profit agencies. In order to overcome
shortcomings of such a complex mixture of service providers, ‘care management’ was
introduced in the context of Japanese eldercare so that care managers in Japan have
been regarded as the core of the LTCI program to realise the independent living of frail
elderly persons by arranging, providing necessary services.
Contrary to initial expectation, the media and academics in Japan believe that care
management is not meeting clients’ needs and is not able to respond to issues of care in
the community. These criticisms regard their role as that of bureaucrats or sales persons
meant just to convey the directives of the government or sell services to their clients.
Are such critiques valid? If so, what makes them behave that way? As the term ‘care
management’ for the elderly is an eclectic concept learned and transferred from abroad
as a product of the LTC policy reform, this problematic leads me to study the cultural
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aspects of policy implementation: How has the concept of ‘care management’ been
interpreted in a certain cultural setting to implement the LTC policy.
1.2 Theoretical Framework of the Study
1.2.1
Policy learning and LTC policy reform
Eldercare has become a common social policy agenda in countries facing rapid ageing
and governments in response have started to develop systematic LTC policies (Colombo
et al., 2011, p. 62). LTC policies reflect several common features of eldercare. LTC policies
are likely to be emulated among the welfare states (Campbell, Ikegami, & Kwon, 2009).
There is a difficulty in drawing a line between private and public responsibility for care
because it involves everyday life as well as professional treatment (Ikegami & Campbell,
2002, p. 720). It requires strong professional interventions, ranging from medicine,
public health, nursing and social work, especially to establish comprehensive LTC
policies (Ibid.). This multi-disciplinary character of LTC makes intervention complex
because various professionals are engaged in the implementation process, which requires
coordination. Also, it is widely acknowledged that LTC for the elderly is a reason for the
increase in social security expenditures. This is due to the fact that the cost of the LTC
in itself has increased and also the sheer numbers of elderly who need care has risen
(Bowes, 2007).
A common understanding of the politics of social services is regarded as ‘the province
of bureaucrats and professionals manoeuvring rather than electoral politics in all
countries’ (Campbell, 1992, p. 245; Heclo, 1988, p. 384). What this suggests is that while
bureaucrats and professionals exert power in the field of social service policy making
utilising their ability to learn policies, characteristics of social services are relatively
flexible. This exertion of power allows variations in the degree of change because the
system mostly depends on personnel, for example, compared to pension schemes where
uniform bureaucratic procedure is necessary.
Policies are likely to be either emulated or learned. As a result, these processes tend
to lead to eclectic policy constructions. For example, Germany, Korea and Japan have
introduced insurance based financing for LTC (Campbell, Ikagemi, & Gibson, 2010;
Campbell, Ikegami, & Kwon, 2009). In terms of LTC policies among welfare states,
providing services for elderly in the community is one example. The Nordic countries,
for example, developed publicly funded non-institutional social care services, namely
home help services in the 1950s and other services to support the elderly to remain living
in the community (Sipilä, 1997, pp. 3–5). In the UK, the concept of community care was
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
21
developed in 1960s to promote the de-institutionalisation movement for the mentally ill,
then implemented in 1980s, as an eldercare measure to promote de-institutionalisation
of elderly and the ageing-in-place idea (Lewis & Glennerster, 1996; Means, Richard,
& Smith, 2008; Rowles, 1993). To achieve this policy goal, a number of governments
introduced the new idea of the market and efficiency in the social care services. As a
result, social service sectors have been facing growing privatisation and marketisation
from 1980s and onward (Meagher & Szebehely, 2013). The idea was that the service users
themselves or their relatives could purchase necessary services from private providers
(Glendinning & Kemp, 2006). This tendency towards a changing balance of public and
private provision shifted the role of the local administrative bodies to become enablers
(Levick, 1992; Wistow, Knapp, Hardy, & Allen, 1992). Also, home based care was
regarded both as a humane and cheap method to substitute for institutional care.
To express the similarities and the differences, theories of policy change offer
alternative theoretical interpretations on the process. The political economy regards
the arena of social policy is one of power struggles that influences the life courses and
conditions of the elderly. Estes (1979) regarded that the outcomes of public policies are
consequences of social struggles among major social actors. Class, race, gender and age
relations are the central driving forces for policy change and its consequences.
Contrary to the above conflict-based approach, theories focusing on ‘knowledge
acquisition and utilisation’ attempt to explain the policy process. Bennett and Howlett
(1992) have examined five concepts of ‘learning’ in policy studies; ‘political learning’
(Heclo, 1974), ‘social learning’ (Hall, 1993), ‘government learning’ (Etheredge, 1981),
‘policy-oriented learning by policy networks and policy communities’ (Sabatier, 1988)
and ‘lesson-drawing’ (Rose, 1991), to explain policy change. The theorists interested
in the epistemic aspect of policy change have developed concepts of learning by actors
and diffusion from country to country (Simmons et al., 2008). Reflecting the cognitive
aspect of policy process, policy learning is a term to explain the process of policy change
through the cognitive aspects of policy makers (Etheredge, 1981). It may be rational
or bounded learning or even emulate the policies introduced across the border. To
motivate policy reform, a new idea with new concepts and terms is always necessary.
Most importantly, these terms are imported and emulated by policy learning. However,
the introduction of similar concepts and the re-use of policy terms do not necessarily
induce similar consequences. According to Meseguer (2005), policy learning implies
‘a change of beliefs (by some, as a change of choices) in the light of the experience of
others, adapting similar policy concepts and policy terms’ (p. 72). Bennett and Howlett
(1992) examined the concept of learning utilised in policy research and pointed out
that the concept policy learning implies that knowledge and information become part
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of resources as collective power because states change policies when they learn. States
learn policies differently, therefore, the change results in variations in policies.
Finally, policies may look changed on the surface but maintaining the essence of
former policies remains at the core. Historical theorists try to explain what changes and
what remains in policy by using the concept of path-dependency (Skocpol, 1985). When
thinking about eldercare policies, fundamental cultural ideas on the family and social
responsibilities are reflected in the policy formation through the local implementation
phase.
In spite of the variety of ideas, the language of policy change looks rather similar.
The passive view of policy learning opens up the issue of the subjectivity of the state
in decision making in the policy process because policy decisions in a given state are
systematically influenced and conditioned by prior policy choices made in other states
(Simmons & Elkins, 2004). According to Alasuutari (2014), policy diffusion seems to
be achieved by the emulation of proliferated models on the surface but actually it is the
local policy makers that choose the catchwords to promote decisions. These selections
are made to support the government’s preferred direction (Pfau-Effinger, 2005). Thus, in
terms of LTC policy making, even though similar concepts and policies are introduced
among nations, the effect of local politics such as fundamental cultural ideas concerning
family versus societal responsibilities plays an inevitably strong role in the making of
old age policies.
1.2.2
Balancing service allocation by a changing welfare mix
Current LTC policy reform stressing community care and the marketisation of social
care services apparently alters service allocations but the term LTC does not adequately
reflect the mode of care and its production (Koff, 1994). Often, the LTC is used as a
technical term, an antonym to the acute and short-term care, which is mostly used in
the health field but some time it also indicates social fields to provide a series of health
and social welfare services for patients and clients who suffer from chronic disease and
disability, regardless of age. In the seminal book by Kane and Kane (1987), the LTC was
defined as
‘a set of health, personal care, and social services delivered over a sustained period
of time to persons who have lost or never acquired some degree of functional
capacity’ (p. 4).
In 2011, it was defined by Colombo (2011) as
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
23
‘a range of services required by persons with a reduced degree of functional
capacity, physical or cognitive, and who are consequently dependent for an
extended period of time on help with basic activities of daily living (ADL). This
“personal care” component is frequently provided in combination with help with
basic medical services such as “nursing care” (help with wound dressing, pain
management, medication, health monitoring), as well as prevention, rehabilitation
or services of palliative care. Long-term care services can also be combined with
lower-level care related to “domestic help” or help with instrumental activities of
daily living (IADL)’ (p. 11–12).
As the term LTC is used frequently to express eldercare around the globe, the usage of
the term has been contested. For example, Theodore H. Koff (1994) argued the usage of
the LTC that
‘long term care should not be defined by the site of the delivery of services, such
as a nursing home or the individual’s home. Increasingly, we find references in
the literature to “short term” and “long term” care or to “long term care in the
community” versus “long term care in the institutional setting. These terms fail
to recognize real differences between mode of care and inadequately address
the relationships between such issues as the source of the problem, the nature
of the intervention, the location at which service is provided and duration of the
intervention’. (p. 164) (underline author’s emphasis)
Reflecting the mode of care production in the LTC policy, welfare mix is used to describe
the empirical and historical diversity of welfare systems as a way of analysing the different
types of service production and balance. While there are synonyms such as welfare
pluralism (Johnson, 1987) and the mixed economy of welfare (Kamerman, 1983), the
peculiar aspects of the welfare mix assumes that different kinds of organisations would
supplement one another in producing welfare as different organisations are thought to
do better at different tasks (Ascoli & Ranci, 2002; Evers, 1993; Evers & Svetlik, 1993;
Sipilä & Anttonen, 1999; Pinker, 1992). The concept also attempts to shed light on the
socio-economic background of the often highly political and ideological portrayals of
specific welfare mixes (Evers, 1993). Because of this, the concept was highlighted in
the political sphere along with the crisis of the welfare state debate and change of the
dynamics of welfare system reform (Evers & Svetlik, 1993). However, more recently, the
concept has been used as a reference point for specific social policy suggestions. Welfare
mix as a policy direction influences care work through the mode of human services
organisations by carrying out the privatisation of social services (see the series of studies
in Ascoli & Ranci, 2002; Evers & Svetlik, 1993).
While welfare mix is useful term, its actual meaning is vague where similar
concepts are also proposed. Pinker theoretically examined these terms and pointed out
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that neither of these terms accurately portrays the change of welfare system and its
consequences to governance of welfare states (Pinker, 1992, p. 282). Sipilä and Anttonen
(1999) also pointed out that the welfare mix as an analytical tool lacks explanatory
power to describe the dynamics of the care production.
In order to better differentiate the political and analytical objectives of welfare mix,
Sipilä and Anttonen (1999) point out that the mode of care production is an essential
element to identify the different balance of welfare mix. The mode of care production is
divided into larger categories in two ways: public-private and formal-informal. The public
stands for governmental or quasi-governmental services whereas the private includes
commercial business and for-profit organisations, non-profit or non-governmental
organisations and families. Moreover, formal stands for provisioned organised social
care either by the public and private sector, whereas informal stands for non-organised
care provided by e.g. family members, relatives and friends.
Each sector has decisive objectives to accomplish and the relationships between
public and private, and formal and informal sectors, are always difficult. This is because
the balance of welfare mix rests on political and cultural dynamics of the states (Ibid.).
The public sector aims to be universal and standardises the services to acquire equality
and fairness. The public sector can raise compulsory funds to be used for universal
purposes because it aims to provide services according to the principle of universalism
(Anttonen & Sipilä, 2012). However, the shortcomings of the public sector are that it
tends to be inflexible and have bureaucratic management; the sector follows rules rather
than seeking practical solutions. Cost containment and changes in operations are often
difficult. Thus, outsourcing is used as a solution to acquire efficiency but it also raises the
problem of quality and equity (Brown, Potoski, & Van Slyke, 2006).
Within the private sector, the central concern is flexibility for customer satisfaction
and cost effectiveness. The commercial sector seeks the cheapest labour force and
most efficient management because strong management and cost consciousness of
the commercial sector contributes to cost reduction. Because of this rationale, the
commercial sector would not start a business where there are fewer clients (Sipilä &
Anttonen, 1999).
Non-profit organisations aim at human interests and they are strong with acquiring
knowledge, expertise, networking, information. Often non-profits produce the best
quality care service with the least bureaucracy. The activities of non-profit organisations
are heavily dependent on donations and their ability to realise their missions. Due to
their nature of the mission, engaging in household matters is, in principle, easier for
them to attract clients because they inspire confidence. The main problem with nonprofit organisations is continuity of the service they produce because they rely on the
goodwill of their human and financial resources. Non-profits can only function if
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
25
there are people enough who are interested in their activities. Moreover, equal access
is another problem: non-profits may be selective with their targeting and most active
in fields and regions where money can be raised, therefore not providing equal services
universally.
Families are not formally organised compared to the other three actors, however,
they are continuously providing care to their members based on social and familial
norms (Sipilä & Anttonen, 1999). The formal and informal sectors often seek the same
goal: to arrange good care for the elderly. However, when a formal sector, mainly the
public sector, has less responsibility, the social care responsibility reverts to the informal
sector, namely to families. These dynamics are called the ‘plasticity of care’ (Anttonen,
Sipilä, & Baldock, 2003, pp. 193–194).
In current neoliberal reform, privatisation and decentralisation aim at changing the
balance of public and private responsibility in the welfare mix (see Davies & Knapp, 1987;
Davies & Knapp, 1994; Kamerman & Kahn, 1989; Wistow, 1994). This process started to
relegate the public role in care production to the private sector. In the changing balance
of welfare mix, the major provision of social care services is delivered by commercial and
non-profit sectors. In terms of formal and informal relations, the neoliberal reform on
social services pushes the care responsibility back to informal sector (Sipilä, Anttonen,
& Baldock, 2003).
In addition, the institutional change surrounding each sectors have started to make
the sectors more similar (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). To avoid extreme marketisation, the
issue of governance has come to the fore in the current welfare mix balance. As a policy,
the welfare mix expects non-profits to fill the gap between market failure and bottomup operation of the community-based care. Decision-making taken by traditional
governance is based on indirect democracy. This means that when democracy is weak,
the service target may be politically biased. When the new welfare mix arrangement was
taken as a measure to realise neoliberal reform, the bottom-up and participatory type
of the governance of the welfare state started to emerge. In this context, the political
role of non-profit organisations is considerable. They aim to find a niche to enhance
social citizenship and democratic participation to realise policy implementation (Ascoli
& Ranci, 2002). Thus, non-profits are discussed with the language of public policy
governance, but some use the context of social enterprise in relation to the service
production of market and government (Borzaga & Defourny, 2004). In order to balance
their assigned role in service operation and governance, the relationship between nonprofits and the government started to change into more collaborative relations. The
public sector started to outsource the service production by making contracts with the
non-profit providers (Eikås & Selle, 2002; Ascoli & Ranci, 2002; Suda, 2006).
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1.2.3
Neoliberal reform and street-level implementation
Care managers are virtually street-level bureaucrats, with both the advantages and
disadvantages. Michael Lipsky (1980) defined street-level bureaucrats as ‘(p)ublic
service workers who interact directly with citizens in the course of their jobs, and
who have substantial discretion in the execution of their work’ (p. 3). Street-level
bureaucracy is defined as ‘(p)ublic service agencies that employ a significant number
of street-level bureaucrats in proportion to their work force’ (Ibid.). The street-level
bureaucrats, according to Lipsky, have a distinct policy making-role based on their
high degree of discretion and relative autonomy from organisational authority. The
street-level bureaucrats also have different interests than the managers of the street-level
bureaucracies, who have different expectations. As a job, street-level bureaucrats work
at a setting where relatively high degrees of discretion and daily contacts with nonvoluntary clients present a number of obstacles to comply with their work demands.
These obstacles are the lack of resources, demand that exceeds the supply, ambiguous
and even conflicting goals and role expectations, and the difficulty to measure their
performance (Lipsky, 2010, pp. 27–28). This particular type of task is said to cause a
‘dilemma’, ‘a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or more
alternatives that are equally undesirable’ (ODE, ‘dilemma’ [Def. 1]).
Street-level work is characterised by number of role tensions experienced as dilemmas
and these dilemmas encountered by street-level bureaucrats affect their daily practices.
Lipsky (1980) distinguishes two types of roles (pp. 71–78). One is called the ‘human
model of interaction’ where workers try to locate themselves to advocate for clients with
their professional expertise. The other is a ‘model of detachment and equal treatment’,
where employees also have to work as gatekeepers. Street-level bureaucrats are required
to take these roles, which places them in a contradictory situation. Thus, the street-level
work contains an alienating aspect of work to have implement practices that exclude
the basic humanity of clients (Prottas, 1979). Further, because of the dilemma, streetlevel bureaucrats circumvent their work to cope with the contradictory situation. This
behaviour typically appears in segmenting clients and controlling the outputs and
inputs of their work that affects the quality and quantity of services. As to the ‘service
and accountability dilemmas’ which street-level workers face, the professionalisation of
street-level bureaucracies has long been regarded as a remedy to alter their circumventing
behaviour because professionals are expected to achieve altruistic behaviour, high
standards, and self-monitoring to commit themselves to realise the ideal client-centred
practices (Lipsky, op. cit., pp. 201–202, 275).
The street-level bureaucrats’ tasks necessarily involve key components of care
managers such as direct interaction with clients, the problem of discretion, routinisation
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
27
and simplification. Nevertheless, both social work and care management must
always take the dark side of professionalisation into account because the process of
professionalisation is contiguous with the bureaucracy. It does not necessarily realise a
client-centred approach to the practice but may only reinforce their relative superiority
to clients (Lipsky, 1980, p. 203). This is due to the fact that both social workers and care
managers have unique relations with the state. While a strong subjectivity is required
for social workers, the jurisprudence applied to social work often causes dilemmas
(Day, 1981). When incidents occur, it is often difficult to find social workers culpable.
Consequently, social workers are likely to circumvent their roles in order to ease
tensions with jurisprudence to protect selves. Similar to care management, the expertise
of social work also has to face the bureaucracy to convey the public services but in a less
compelling way.
The current situation surrounding public policy is changing. The changing
organisational climates surrounding professionals alter the level of discretion and
control. Eventually, the organisational pressure for management is reflected in the task
of care management would be consonant with the street-level bureaucrats’ tasks and
‘service and accountability dilemmas’ which street-level workers face.
In LTC policy, the recent privatisation of social care services may have a different
impact on street-level bureaucracy (Lipsky, 2010). Wilson (1993) has described that the
increased managerialism would possibly cause following dilemmas to local workers;
career development versus service development, generic versus specialist, job satisfaction
versus costs to name a few. Hjörne, Juhila and Van Nijnatten (2010) revisited the theory
of street-level bureaucracy and suggested its application in the recent introduction of
the concept of the new public management, which would seek to reconstruct public
administration with the idea of efficiency surrounding welfare work. They stressed the
role of workers as mediators between the institutions and clients. This is where workers
are most directly facing dilemmas in implementing reform policies. The objectives
of recent organisational reforms in public service bureaucracies to realise ‘resource
management (efficiency, productivity and good clarification)’ are the most important
factors in such dilemmas. They have identified three areas of dilemmas for social welfare
workers in Lipsky and Prottas’ theory of street-level bureaucracy; ‘autonomy vs. control’,
‘responsiveness vs. standardisation’, and ‘demand vs. supply’ (Ibid., pp. 304–306).
Contrary to the above pessimistic view of the street-level workers, Vinzant, Denhardt,
and Crothers (1998) proposes a positive view of the street-level workers. Their view to
these workers are more active and they exercise positive leadership with the strength
given by a legitimate discretionary power in everyday tasks (Ibid., pp. 66–67).
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1.2.4
Managerialism and professionalism
Besides the bureaucratic roles assigned to convey administrative tasks, care management
is inherently a practice representing a professional expertise. The profession is defined
as ‘occupations based on advanced, or complex, or esoteric, or arcane knowledge’
(Murphy, 1988, p. 245; MacDonald, 1995, p. 2). It is defined as means of organising
and controlling workers, which is differentiated from bureaucratic and industrial and
commercial organisations.
Recently, managerialism has become a source of professional control (Kolthoff,
Huberts, & Heurel, 2007). As Coulshed and Mullender (2006) pointed out how the
notion of management started to emerge in the social work textbook, there is a distinct
change in the control of professional work. The organisational environment developed
by neoliberal reform, through strategies such as the new public management, started
to affect the behaviour and the expertise of professionals. The retrenchment policy
for welfare is directly reflected through organisational control, which has a decisive
impact on the quality of the professional work by inducing dilemmas between ethical
obligations and organisational control (Hjörne, Juhila, & Nijnatten, 2010; Weick,
1995). Professional expertise and organisational attributes often impose a trade-off
between professional expertise and bureaucratic routine. An institutional influence on
organisational survival and professional convergence goes hand-in-hand. The form of
organisation is deeply impacted by institutional change. Institutional and economic
environments constantly influence organisations. This dynamics leads an organisation
to adapt to the environment. The ‘isomorphism of organisation’ (Hannan & Freeman,
1977) explains that organisations adapt to the institutional environments surrounding
them and as a consequence, the organisational field is likely to converge with a similar
kind of organisational type (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). The institutional change
surrounding organisations moving towards an emphasis on accountability and cost
containment pressures indirectly forces professionals to comply with both managerial
directives and their own professional norms. In short, all professionals have to comply
with similar managerial pressures (Leicht & Fennell, 1997, p. 216).
The change in the organisational environment influences the cognitive ability
and behaviour of professionals to cope with the situation. The current managerial
regime pressures professionals to work in a fragmented environment, which induces
professionals to become bureaucrats or mere constituent members of a certain
organisation instead of independent professionals. This change directly influences
the professional labour market given its impact on their career paths and mobility. In
contemporary neoliberal reforms, professionals are mobilised to realise organisational
and functional reform. Hence the control over professionals has changed from the
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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traditional peer or bureaucratic control to a greater formalisation of professional
controls by managerial elite professionals (Freidson, 1984, p. 16; Leicht & Fennell, 1997,
p. 223). As a result, ‘…tension between rank and file practitioners and the knowledge
elite cannot fail to grow as well, creating a deeper division between them than existed
when practitioners were free to ignore the standards established by the latter, if they so
choose’ (Freidson, 1984, p. 16).
The change in professional work and life induced by the changing political atmosphere
requires an approach to explain changing professions from a concept to explain the
relation between social forces and more rationalised, standardised and popularised
knowledge base of profession (Mills, 1951; Oppenheimer, 1972). One of the concepts to
deal with this task is professionalism (Larson, 1977; Freidson, 2001; Evetts, 2011; 2013,
Fournier, 1999). Professionalism is a mind-set of certain occupational groups defined
as ‘an occupational or normative value, as something worth preserving and promoting
in work and by and for workers’ and more recently interpreted as discourse and value
system which ‘combined occupational value and the ideological interpretations’ (Evetts,
2013, p. 782).
According to Evetts (2013), professionalism is interpreted in three ways. First,
professionalism as occupational value stresses the professionalism as a value system.
It regards the knowledge base, expertise, and occupational control of the work by
practitioners themselves as important factors of professionalism. It also intends to
defend professionalisation from further standardisation pressures to limit discretion
by the professionals through the achievement of competence. Thus, this interpretation
provoked the re-evaluation of trust, discretion, risk, judgment and expertise and the
reassessment of quality and performance to prevent further pressures of standardisation
that limits the discretion of professionals through the achievement of competence.
Hence, the real importance of professionalisation, according to this interpretation, is
defending their knowledge base, expertise and occupational control of the work by
practitioners. Second, professionalism as ideological elements takes a more pessimistic
standpoint regarding it as a ‘process of market closure and monopoly control of work
and occupational dominance…to promote professional practitioners’ own occupational
self-interests in terms of their salary, status and power as well as monopoly protection
of an occupational jurisdiction’ (Evetts, 2013; also see, Larson, 1977; Larkin, 1983;
Abbott, 1988). Third, professionalism as discourse of occupational change was influenced
by Michael Foucault’s concept of legitimacy, subjectivity and government (Foucault,
1996ab; 2011; 2014) and considers professionalism as a ‘disciplinary mechanism’.
According to Fournier (1999), professionalism is the governing mechanism of
professional practice, which control the practice ‘at distance’. This interpretation of
professionalism has great relevance to explain a new occupation, such as care managers,
as the professionalisation in the current neoliberal reform involves the politicisation of
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professionals through the change in organisational and institutional arrangements. As a
consequence, professionalisation reinforces social stratification and inequalities within
industrial relations.
Professionalism evolves in discourse: It is continuously negotiated and changed
as a process (Strauss, 1978, pp. 5–6). The core of this process is found in hierarchical
differences, the location of control and function of such discourse. Thus, studying the
discourse of an emerging occupation and change of the occupational values requires
locating the issue into broader contexts such as the political and organisational
environment of professionalism. A categorisation by Evetts provides a clue to
understanding the difference between care management and social work as professions.
In the Table 1.1, characteristics of the two forms of knowledge-based professionalisms
exemplifying the distinction between organisational and occupational professionalism
are illustrated (Evetts, 2013, p. 788). These two forms of professionalisms provide useful
frameworks for understanding how care management, as a new occupation has been
developed to convey neoliberal reform. To examine how to adapt Evetts’ categorisation
to the development of care management, I have reformulated and named six traits of
professionalism listed as dimensions to study care management. The first dimension
deals with how discourse is used by whom and for what. The second dimension is asking
who assigns the authority and what the forms of control are. The third dimension is how
work is processed. The fourth dimension deals with the structure of decision-making.
The fifth dimension deals with how the actual work is evaluated. The sixth dimension is
about how it is linked to theoretical traditions in sociology.
Table 1.1. Two Different Forms of Professionalism in Knowledge-based Work by Evetts
Dimensions
Organisational professionalism
Occupational professionalism
Subject of discourse handled
Discourse of control used
increasingly by managers in work
organisations
Discourse constructed within
professional groups
Forms of authority and control
Rational-legal forms of authority
Managerialism
Collegial authority. Controls
operationalised by practitioners
Work procedure
Standardised procedures
Discretion and occupational control
of the work
Decision making structure
Hierarchical structures of authority
and decision-making
Practitioner trust by both clients and
employers
Elements of monitoring
Accountability and externalised
forms of regulation, target-setting
and performance review
Professional ethics monitored by
institutions and associations
Theoretical connections
Linked to Weberian models of
organisation (efficiency, rationallegal)
Located in Durkheim’s model of
occupations as moral communities
(organic solidarity)
(The author reformulated the categorisation and table by Evetts, 2013, p. 788)
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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The process of organisational professionalism is constructed ‘from above’. The main
method taken is called managerialism. The style of discourse comes from the higher
hierarchy using a top-down style. More official directives are used to exert authority
and decisions are made by hierarchical order. As result, professionals are monitored
according to accountability, performance and competence. Managerialism thus
becomes a form of control. Occupational professionalism is achieved ‘from within’ the
professionals. Peers and colleagues play major roles in discourse construction, authority
exertion and controls. Professionals develop decisions in a more democratic way
and each professional is monitored according to ethical guidelines developed within
occupational groups.
Both types of professionalism were observed when this categorisation was applied
to the development of care management. The bureaucratic roles reveal organisational
professionalism whereas in the social work style, the ideal type of care management
requires forms of occupational professionalism. Professionalism developed ‘from
above’ and ‘from within’ may develop distinct forms of professionalism (cited in
Evetts, 2013, p. 786; McClellend, 1990). Professionalism developed ‘from above’ may
consolidate bureaucracy and managerialism. Because, it makes professionalism among
the ‘dominant forces in modern society that professions were increasingly being
sucked into administrative machines, where knowledge is standardised and routinised
into the administrative apparatus and professionals become mere managers’ (cited in
Macdonald, 1995, p. 3; Mills, 1956, p. 112).
1.2.5
Care work as a gendered labour and
an emotional human conduct
As a human act, care work is labour and action related to one another in the totality of a
human being. Still, concepts of labour, work and action are common and have different
connotations. Work is defined as the totality of objectives, modes and achievement of
labour, which carried out as human activity (Anthony, 1977). On the other hand, in the
Marxist tradition, labour is regarded as the commodification of one’s own competence
as a means of production to exchange money to make their living. For Arendt (1958), as
a subjective being, human activities should not be narrowly defined in the area of labour
but include work and action.
It should be recalled that the majority of care workers, including care managers, are
women in the democratic countries, which includes Japan and even Nordic countries
(Isaksen, 2010; Orme, 1998; Peng, 2002). The gendered nature of care work causes a
dilemma. Basically, care is provided in the private sphere, which is usually called
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informal care, but it became an important field of public policy when eldercare emerged
as a social problem. As the subject of care expands to the public domain through the
extension of welfare states which constructs the realm of formal care, the main force of
actors in providing care are heavily and disproportionally women.
As a mode of tendering, care work has peculiar qualities. Daly and Lewis (2000)
define the term care as ‘the activities and relations involved in meeting the physical and
emotional requirements of dependent adults and children, and the normative, economic
and social frameworks within which these are assigned and carried out’ (p. 285).
Reflecting the three dimensions of care proposed by Daly and Lewis, care work
has particular inherent dilemmas when introduced as street-level work. Firstly, when
considering care work as street-level work, the act of care is characterised by both paid
and unpaid labour. Secondly, care workers also have to balance between care for their
household labour and care as a professional task reflecting norms and obligations.
Because care managers are required to have responsibility over clients’ livelihood,
balancing work and everyday life as a carer puts them into a dilemma. Thirdly, care
work also has emotional costs. Without an emotional contribution from care workers,
the work cannot attain a certain level of quality. As the concept of emotional labour
is defined as ‘the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and
bodily display; emotional labour is sold for a wage and therefore has exchange value’
(Hochschild, 1983, p. 7), workers who engage in emotional labour are required or even
prescribed to manage and balance the adequate and inadequate mode of emotion occurs
during the interaction with clients (Takei, 2005, p. 167).
In the civil society in which we live, the recent development of carers’ movements
and the rise of social enterprise providing care service exemplifies, because of the very
quality underlying care work as emotional human conduct, that experienced carers may
nourish a ‘political passion’ (Collins, 2001) to develop the care work as a possible social
movement aiming for ‘citizen participation ad deliberative governance’ (Fischer, 2009,
pp. 50–52).
1.3 Aim of the Study and Research Questions
Care management is a social work innovation constructed through political influence
(Baldwin, 1997; Payne, 2000). Understanding the work of care managers who convey
tasks to realise the LTC policy reform requires greater elaboration because the premise
of public services is changing (Lewis & Glennerster, 1996; Payne, 2000). In the
current LTC policy enhancing to change the balance of welfare mix, care managers
are required to balance a compliance and budgetary control perspective on one hand
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
33
and skills in negotiation where contracts and coordination with voluntary and profit
service providers become the centre of their role on the other (Wilson, 1993; 1994;
Payne, 2000). Moreover, care managers have to reconcile with an advocacy role and
the pressure towards standardisation because they are also required to implement the
national program. Thus, they often need to compromise their role as human service
professionals to bureaucracy. The change in policy direction increases the dilemma
they face. It makes their work alienating, induces ambiguity in their role, resulting in
diminishing staff morale (Lipsky, 1980; 2010, pp. 212–237; Prottas, 1979; Hjörne et al.,
2010). Thus, scrutinising the consequences of professionals mobilised in market-oriented
service provision to convey frontline work and how changes in organisational and interorganisational frameworks in social care service affect the practice are imperative as a
policy evaluation point of view. It is an empirical property that how these dilemmas
would be reflected in street-level implementation (Winter, 2003).
In my view, with few exceptions (Baldwin, 2000; Payne, 2000), the technical aspects
of care management are actively debated, but rarely argued how care managers develop
the macro LTC policy reform: What seems to be lacking in studying the implementation
of care management is linking macro institution and micro view of implementation
studies specifically focusing on cognitive functions of social actors (Rice, 2012; Lipsky,
2010, pp. 212–237). To better understand the relation between the macro policy learning
and its consequence, the key task of this study is to exemplify how the power is exercised
in cognitive aspects of each street-level workers who implement the policy. More
concretely, how the idea behind the LTC policy to change balance of welfare mix affect
the micro level implementation carried out by care management introduced by policy
learning.
To accomplish the task, the central research question in this research is: How do
care managers construct the practice of care management in the current Japanese LTCI
system? The sub questions comprised from:
1) How did Japan choose LTCI system as a way to cope with the increasing social
care demand? How was the current mode of welfare mix achieved and how has
policy learning affected the development of certain welfare mix?
2) How did a new concept such as ‘care management’ appear in policy discourse
and in this historical context? How did Japanese policy makers and academics
learn and develop the Japanese paradigm of care management?
3) How are the roles and rules narrated? How have positive and negative narratives
of care management developed? How differently do these narratives appear
according to organisational, professional and gender differences?
4) How did the policy learning affect micro level implementation through care
management practices? Does increased managerialism multiply dilemmas
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among street-level workers? How do workers seek to cope with the complex
situation and avert responsibility (Lipsky, 1980) or even circumvent action to
comply with a social work moral base? If the current mode of care management
innovation producing better quality services to overcome restricted supply of
social resources, how?
1.4 Contents of the Study
In what follows, a detailed theoretical examination on case/care management is given in
Chapter 2 ‘Care Management: History, Concepts, Models and Relevance to Social Work’.
Following the theoretical understanding of case/care management, I try to explain the
methodology and methods employed to justify the discourse based approach in Chapter
3 ‘“Care Management” as an Implementation Tool’. In Chapter 4 ‘Japan’s Search for a
Model Eldercare’, I revisit the Japanese history on LTC policy after World War II to
contextualise peculiarity of Japanese welfare mix and tried to find how Japanese society
struggled to find a well-functioning policy for eldercare. It aims to explore how the
government, experts and media regarded and discussed the LTCI system generally.
Also, by analysing the policy process, I describe how Japan introduced this eclectic
method to eldercare and the circumstances of introducing a Japanese version of care
management as part of the LTC policy. Chapter 5, ‘The Operation of the LTCI System in
Japan’, describes the LTCI system comprehensively. Readers will gain an understanding
of actual operation of Japanese LTCI by debates revolved around the implementation
of the system. Chapters 6, 7 and 8 illustrate Japanese care management practice based
on narratives constructed with 17 care managers. Focus is placed on the interaction
between care managers’ everyday practice and expertise, as well as the organisational
and work domains of care management. Through this process, my aim is to clarify the
cognitive mechanisms in which care management conveyed at different organisations by
each care managers with different professional backgrounds and seeking peculiarities
of the street-level work to implement the LTC policy in Japan. Chapter 6 ‘The Task
of Care Management’, contains the empirical findings on tasks of care management,
which stresses that the mixture of disciplines and mode of organisations affects care
managers’ sense-making process. Chapter 7, ‘Organisational Attributes and Care
Management’, deals with the organisational attributes affecting their recognition of
clients and identity as care managers. Chapter 8, ‘Care Managers’ Practice in Everyday
Life’, analyses care management as form of labour, focusing on care managers’ flexible
working conditions introduced in the current labour market policy which affects the
boundaries of statutory work and voluntary extra work. Chapter 9, ‘Care Management
at the Juncture of Expertise, Ethics, Organisation and Practice’, illuminates the Japanese
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
35
paradigm of care management by analysing the results of the previous empirical results
in the Japanese policy and cultural context. Chapter 10, ’Care Management as a Mode
of Welfare Mix Implementation’, is where I draw my conclusions namely, the three
dimensions of care management in Japan; tasks, organisational attributes and work in a
comprehensive way. It also states the limitations of the study, offers policy implications,
and recommendations for future studies.
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2 CARE MANAGEMENT: HISTORY, CONCEPTS,
MODELS AND RELEVANCE TO SOCIAL WORK
Case management is defined in diverse ways because it has been applied to variety
of target groups, such as patients with mental health issues and elders living in the
community. The Encyclopaedia of Social Welfare refers to Barker (1999) and defines case
management as ‘a procedure to plan, seek, and monitor services from different social
agencies and staff on behalf of a client’ (Roberts-DeGennaro, 2008, p. 223). According
to Austin (1988), the origin of case management can be traced back to early social work,
from what is formally known as record keeping methods developed in case coordination
activities performed in the 19th century Settlement House movement and in the charity
organisations (p. 7).
2.1 History and the Background of Case Management Development
Case management as actual practice started to develop in the mid-1970s in relation to
the idea of a key worker (Ferlie, Challis, & Davies, 1989) who functioned as an agent
to coordinate fragmented services to ensure client’s needs are met. The aim of the case
management in the US was to help to deinstitutionalise the disabled and intellectually
disabled to be cared for in the community. As a consequence, case management was
adapted in areas that ranged from rehabilitation, psychiatry, child welfare, and the
developmentally disabled. In legal terms, case management was officially introduced in
the US when the Older Americans Act was inaugurated in 1965. Later, the Amendments
to the Rehabilitation Act (PL95-602) of 1978 and Mental Health Systems Act of 1980
were introduced to realise the independent living of the disabled and people with mental
health issues based on the concept of service integration which was developed to make
linkages among fragmented private community service programs.
In terms of eldercare, the Older Americans Act gave federal money to communitybased care services, whereas Medicaid covered the costs of low-income elderly to stay
in nursing homes. The federal government introduced the Social Security Act Title XX
in 1975 and started to alter the policy to promote community-based care instead of
institutional care because the increased number of elderly had raised federal medical
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
37
spending and become a financial problem (Kase, 2013). In 1981, case management
became a part of the federal grant by the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981
together with other social services targeted at low income elderly such as day care,
transportation, educational, employment, food, housing reform, to list a few. Later,
responsibility for the management role of community care was officially registered
in the amended Older Americans Act of 1984 (Kase, 2013). The initial trials of case
management services funded by a Medicaid waiver in a community setting were carried
out in different settings, such as hospitals and in LTC (Austin, 1988; 1983). The major
objective to implement such a demonstration program was to find a systematic method
to link informal and private services to formal resources. This was necessary in the
US to enable both the provision of continuous support and the necessity of adequate
case records for clients and shareholders. Interestingly, instead of a budgetary process,
most of the trial projects stressed the coordination aspects of the services. However,
community care programs based in San Francisco, such as the social/HMO and the On
Lok program, also introduced aspects of organisational revenue management, namely
fixed payments per person and the idea of provider risk (Austin, 1988, p. 8). Currently,
national organisations called Managed Care Organizations (MCOs) and a private
agency called the Area Agency on Aging (AAA) provide case management.
As is often pointed out, the development of case management in the US was ascribed
to number of characteristics inherent in the US social service provision. Firstly, the
service structure surrounding social workers in the US affected its development. The
need to coordinate decentralised and fragmented social and community resources
fostered case management as a concept and technique in social work (Shaw, BriarLawson, Orme, & Ruckdeschel, 2010). Secondly, the US casework model was developed
in order to deal with the accountancy and budgetary aspects of case activity, often in
circumstances where a service-funding agency used a case manager to coordinate and
oversee the use of its funds by service providing agencies (Orme & Glastonbury, 1993).
Because of these backgrounds, the case management approach increased its popularity
by being viewed as a systematic and economical way to organise fragmented monetary
and social resources for a client and to develop social resources available to clients.
On the other hand, the idea of the community care reform was constructed gradually
in a series of government reports and white papers aimed at reforming community care
policies in the UK. The main result of this process was the NHS and Community Care
Act of 1990 as a significant public sector reform under the Thatcher administration
(Meredith, 1995). The reform had two objectives. First, from the clients’ point of view,
the reform emphasised independent living instead of serving clients in institutions.
Second, from the supply side, the heart of community care reform was to radically
reorganise the whole structure of social services by introducing a privatisation notion
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to social services. It also stressed needs-led service provision and emphasised incentives
for the efficient use of resources (Bebbington & Charnley, 1990; Challis & Davies, 1986;
Davies, 1989; Scharf & Wenger, 1995).
Nevertheless, because the community care policy relies on the private sector it is
difficult to achieve the intended policy objectives due to the lack of community based
service resources and the role of key worker who coordinates the fragmented service
resources in the community for clients. Thus, alongside the Community Care Act of
1990, the case management concept developed in the North America was started to
form a British paradigm of care management. A number of experimental studies were
directed by the Personal Social Service Research Unit (PSSRU) of the University of Kent
based on the idea of the production of welfare approach to the community care (Knapp,
1987). Particularly important was the approach of these studies. It emphasised economic
efficiency, material production and top-down centralism and introduced ‘vertical and
horizontal target efficiency’ as basic concepts to improve personal social service delivery.
Most importantly, to achieve an effective allocation of resources in community care, the
concept of performance and the use of incentives became necessary conditions to be
introduced in the field of social services (Bebbington & Davies, 1983).
In the research phases at PSSRU, case management was regarded as a core technology
for service coordination, based on the mixed provision of social care resources and
simultaneously means to push efficiency to realise the objectives of community care
reform (Bebbington & Davies, 1983; Davies, 1990). Case managers, who are usually
social workers employed by local authorities, were asked to pay attention to unmet
needs ranging from chronic care needs with mental impairment, to higher order levels
of need, such as loneliness and depression, as well as to more basic care needs. In short,
the idea was to reduce costs and improve the quality of care by better coordination of
services (Davies & Knapp, 1987). These experimental studies carried out by the PSSRU
resulted in number of positive outcomes: the reduced proportion of institutionalised
elderly, efficiency by targeting, articulating the role and function of social work (Challis
& Davies, 1986; Toba, 2002, p. 34).
The British government sought a concrete management method to control
fragmented care service provision in the community as an indispensable condition to
achieve the objectives declared in the NHS and the Community Care Act. The result of
the policy learning was the introduction of case management. Later, the use of the term
case management shifted to ‘care management’ around the 1990s because the term ‘care
management’ was regarded more humane compared to the term ‘case management’. In
addition, the term care involves a wider range of work such as resource development as
it reflects more idealistic functions, which care management should carry out (Orme,
1993, p. 3). The British system appointed local social workers to purchase services from
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
39
the private sector to arrange necessary services for clients. The introduction aimed to
enhance community-based care by achieving efficiency and precisely allocating scarce
financial resources. It introduced a mechanism called purchaser-provider split to ensure
a neutral position for clients.
Nowadays, the idea of case management is applied in variety of countries besides
the US and the UK. In Canada, Ontario is famous for the Community Care Access
Centres (CCAC) established by the Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care in 1996.
The Centre aims to enhance public access to home and community services funded
by the government and LTC facilities. CCACs develop networks and collaborate with
physicians, hospital staffs and other health care providers for the elderly, disabled
residents and other residents who need health care services. This multi-professional
team helps needy residents live independently in the community by securing access to
care where they live, including assisted living in their own homes, and in LTC facilities.
The CCAC employees are independent from service providers and have introduced a
tendering system to purchase the services (Ontario, Ministry of Health and Long-Term
Care, 2008). In Australia, the government decided to shift towards community care
from institutional care in 1985 with the Home and Community Care Act (HACC).
Geriatric assessment teams were developed to assess the eligibility needs of elderly for
institutional care. The teams now function as Care Assessment Teams (ACAT) and
121 teams are operating in the whole country (Kase, 2013). Discussed in greater detail
in Chapter 3, Japan introduced kaigo-shien as a Japanese version of care management
when the Long-Term Care Insurance system was inaugurated in 2000. Care managers
in Japan (kaigo-shien-senmonin) are composed from a variety of existing health and
social welfare professionals, appointed by the prefectural governors from a pool of
applicants who have passed the examination. Care managers in Japan mostly work with
range of providers from quasi-public social welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin)
to for-profit organisations. The social welfare corporations are operated by private sector
but approval and licensing to establish the business is strictly controlled by the central
and prefectural governments. Moreover, the Japanese care management system did not
introduce a purchaser-provider split mechanism, which has been applied in the UK.
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2.2 Case/Care Management Models
2.2.1
Clinical case management models
In a broad sense, what the variety of models to define case management teaches us is
that case management covers a wide range of clients’ everyday life and environment
with differing degrees of emphasis. The basic models of case management models are
brokerage, strength, rehabilitation and generalist models (Robinson & Toff-Bergman,
1990; Stanard, 1999). Although the models vary, basically there are relatively few
differences among case management models employed in clinical settings because all
models are rooted in the basic models (Ziguras & Stuart, 2000). By way of illustration of
this similarity, let us examine a model proposed in in the mental health field. The models
are composed of 1) assertive community treatment, 2) strength case management, 3)
rehabilitation and 4) generalist (Solomon, 1992). Another case management model
gives emphasis to clinical and broker roles: 1) broker case management, 2) clinical case
management, 3) strength case management, 4) rehabilitation case management, 5)
assertive community treatment and 6) generalist case management models (Mueser,
Bond, Drake, & Resnick, 1998). These models are often called clinical models of case
management.
In the clinical models of case management, different approaches have developed to
cope with clients with varied conditions. I have categorised the different approaches into
five scopes; 1) mode of service, 2) agent, 3) scope and the target, 4) tasks and functions
and 5) conditions for successful case management (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1. Different Approaches of Clinical Models of Case Management
1) Mode of service
2) Agent
3) Scope and the target
4) Tasks and functions
5) Conditions for successful case
management
Direct
Indirect service
Multidisciplinary team model
Single worker model
Target group approach
(Chronic conditions, mental health etc.)
Target-specific functions
(Brokerage, counselling, therapy, linkage, advocacy etc.)
Discretion over allocation and use of critical resources
Centralisation of control of resources
1) The mode of service: Case management is seen as both a direct and indirect
service. As a direct service, it incorporates three broad functions (Rothman, 1991).
Initially, it intends to provide direct services to clients such as individualised
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
41
advice, counselling, and therapy. Then, case management aims to link clients to
needed services. In addition, it is meant to link clients, community agencies and
informal helping networks.
2)Agent of case management. Distinctions between two approaches: the
multidisciplinary team model and single worker model. Both have their roots
in the degree of contact with clients (Renshaw, 1987). The single work model
resembles social work models. This model has its strength but it is often time
consuming, regarded as an obstacle in times of financial constraints. On the
other hand, the multidisciplinary model stresses the responsibility to be shared
among case managers, most of whom are professionals participating in providing
care to clients. It emphasises an adequate level of skill among the service staffs
and the capacity of organisations that correspond to the defined goals and target
groups (Roberts-DeGennaro, 2008). In the multidisciplinary model, how to be
a liaison and how the responsibility of coordination is to be met, are the two
important questions. Thus, members of multi-disciplinary teams should have
duties of liaison and coordination in addition to their work (Renshaw, 1987).
3) Scope and the target: The target group approach stresses differences in duration
of care or ability for self-care. Thus, approaches to case management have to be
necessarily differentiated by target groups. As an example, casework and case
management is regarded as a basic structure to convey successful LTC for clients,
such as the frail elderly and mentally disabled who need long-term support. In
terms of elder care, Steinberg and Carter (1983) see the case management as
‘increased attention to design, administration, and research of case management
can be expected to centre on the reform of long-term care’ to succeed in ‘diverting
some people from inappropriate institutionalisation, the more attention must
be paid to the linkages with and programs within those facilities that care for
people whose impairments are greatest’ (p. xi). Thus, to comply with this goal,
‘the case managers and the resources they control must meet high standards.
And the continuum of different levels of care must span not only the home-based
and community-based options but also residential facilities for long-term care’
(Ibid.).
4) Tasks and functions: Considerable differences in clients who require short-term
acute and long-term chronic care are distinguished. For example, if a client gets
disoriented with many new human relations, such as elders with dementia, a
single person has to be in contact with these clients. Also, if the client needs
to establish therapeutic relationships and trust, continuity is necessary and the
single worker model is more suitable. But when client does not need therapeutic
services but rather a brokerage service, the team model is more suitable, for
example with elderly with physical disabilities. As for the capacity of the system,
the following characteristics are important for successful case management:
completeness, such as comprehensiveness of services, bias, such as home-based
or those more inclined to institutionalised services, complexity, such as density
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of service providers and quality of services. The power of the service providers is
an important condition because ‘power revolves around control of the critical
resources: clients, information, and funding’ (Steinberg & Carter, 1983, p. 24).
The power of providers may limit the performance of the case manager by
monopolising information on clients. A second variable is the degree of authority
and control given to the case manager, an endogenous factor to case management
per se. It is the statutory power delegated to case management that affects the
providers’ behaviour.
5) Conditions for successful case management. According to Austin (1983), two
important power resources of case managers are the ‘discretion over allocation
and use of critical resources’ and the ‘centralisation of control of resources’. The
definition of discretion delegated to case managers consists of a span of authority
that is ‘width of the range of services over which the case manager has control’,
scope of authority that is ‘the breadth of impact the case manager has in different
portions of the delivery system such as case managers’ influence on service in
acute need and financial incentives to ‘produce desired market behaviour of
providers and to change characteristics of market’. The centralisation of control
of resources includes fragmented funding and financial reform. The more the
funding resources are centrally pooled and case managers have authority to
control those funds in a larger system, the more this statutory power allows case
managers to alter the behaviour of providers.
Among the various models of clinical case management, the most dissonant model
among scholars is brokerage/advocacy. Some scholars are critical of this approach
because brokerage functions are insufficient on their own to produce effective case
management (Applebaum & Austin, 1990; Challis, 1993; Kisthardt & Rapp, 1992; Dant
& Gearing, 1990; Huxley & Warner, 1992; Lamb, 1980).
Basically, two strands of ideas are behind the case management concept; one is
provider-driven and the other is client-driven case management. This distinction is
important because an evaluation of procedures and outcomes certainly differs if the
objectives of the concept contain conflicting ideas (Steinberg & Carter, 1983). To reflect
this division, two approaches are proposed by scholars to reinforce the act of brokerage/
advocacy. Provider-driven case management stresses resource allocation and planning,
and is often called a brokerage or an administrative model. The approach considers
the limitations of resources and need for their effective use to meet client’s needs.
Austin (1990) has pointed out that this kind of case management is a ‘prevalent and
popular response to service delivery problems because it does not significantly alter the
relationship and the distribution of resources among providers in local delivery systems’
(p. 398). Under such circumstance, the pitfall of this approach is that as a consequence
of scarce resources, workers are compelled to consider efficiency and the efficient use
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
43
of resources with the inclination that the case management approach would became
merely an administrative tool.
Client-driven case management stresses that workers have the autonomy to be flexible
and ‘need to develop imaginative combinations of services’ to realise ‘human dignity,
strength advocacy, [the] client as autonomous person’ (Renshaw, 1987). Such approaches
are often called a strengths model or an advocacy model (Rose, 1992, pp. 73–76). For
example, Renshaw suggest that a single agency or a worker with responsibility named
as a key worker is desirable to convey case management because the aims is to maintain
responsibility and meet the needs of individual clients. The services may be provided by
different agencies but the single case manager coordinates the services and ensures that
needs are met (Renshaw et al., 1988). The first approach is close to that of community
social work, separating advocacy for rights and advocacy or brokerage for services from
case/care management (Chamberlin, 1980) and encompassing service brokerage role as
part of wide social structural reform (Anthony & Blanch, 1989; Lecklinter & Greenberg,
1983; Rappaport, 1981). The latter approach is a more individualised one called clinical
case management, with relative emphasis on developing human relations skills by
workers (Kanter, 1989; Harris & Bachrach, 1988). The brokerage/advocacy model is
attractive to some service users, however, it limits the target populations as physically
disabled users enjoy the full potential of services but frail elderly and mentally disabled
find it difficult to follow.
In addition to the brokerage/advocacy model, the multi-professional case
management model is popular in the care of mentally ill users (Thornicroft, 1991). Teams
are comprised from hospital professionals in the framework of the community care
and their task is to link institutions and community by services. The central concern is
the core of responsibility in order to maintain continuity of services by users. In some
cases, the absence of senior doctors in the team model may result in implementing
medical control and power because without full-membership of the teams, ‘although
case management is supposed to overcome problems of divisions between services,
implementing it in this existing service structure may reproduce rather than remove
existing professional and organisational divisions’ (Payne, 2000, p. 86). These current
divisions of care are often reproduced because the diffusion of responsibilities can come
with a lack of tangible skills of coordination when different partners are involved in the
teams.
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2.2.2 Amalgamating clinical and production models
What I have indicated above was that the clinical models introduced in the tradition
of North America do not have major differences in the core functions besides the
brokerage/advocacy models. However, when the clinical case management was adapted
to the UK as a care management to incorporate new ideas called the production of
welfare approach, models started to internalise political and organisational aspects in
case management (Baldwin, 1995; 2000). In the British context, the basic models reflect
some political values. For example, the strengths model is called independence from
welfare model (Challis & Davies, 1986). In the British paradigm of care management,
developing effective care management as the activity to build and maintain a support
network has been regarded as a key function for arranging effective support in the
community (Stevenson & Parsloe, 1978). However, considering the policy process,
the concept of care management was anticipated to contribute to the production of
welfare approach to community care, because the production of the welfare approach
anticipates care from a wide range of sources that would be interwoven and provide
closer support for informal carers. In addition, the positivist idea of evidence-based
practice became popular not only in health care but also in social work because the
powerful academic orientation of behaviourism and evidence-based practice were
consonant with individualised casework approaches. This tendency weakened the social
development approach of social work practice and demanded a greater management
approach (Webb, 2001).
The production of welfare approach had repercussions for the clinical case
management framework. In clinical models of case management, initially no axis for
the outcome measure is included. But the outcome is regarded as an important axis in
the care management, which reflects the welfare production approach. Let us scrutinise
the derivative categorisation of care management as reflecting production of the welfare
approach. According to Huxley (1993), care management models could be differentiated
into three larger categories: 1) primary content, 2) organisational and 2) outcome models
(Table 2.2).
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Table 2.2. British Paradigm of Care Management Models by Huxley (1993)
Sub-models
1) Primary content model
Social skills training/assertive outreach
Brokerage/advocacy
Clinical model
2) Organisational model
Administrative model
Decentralised budgetary control model
Improved service co-ordination
3) Outcome model
Improved quality of life
Improved resource distribution
1) The primary content models are composed from two sub-models based on
differences of emphasis of such contents. These sub-models are social skills
training/assertive outreach and brokerage/advocacy. Social skills training/
assertive outreach is mainly used in mental health care, helping clients to take
contact with society because of isolated circumstances surrounding clients.
Whereas, the brokerage/advocacy model primarily stresses the protection of
individual rights for the client and the objective is to meet the client’s needs with
an agreed level of service qualities.
2) The organisational models are composed from the clinical model, administrative
model and decentralised budgetary control model. The clinical model regards
the worker solely as a resource for long-term needy clients and demands the
involvement of either the staff or team to manage the services. The administrative
model, on the other hand, emphasises the independence of case management.
This model supposes that the caseworkers in the administrative model are
neutral professionals whose task is to evaluate eligibility and assessment without
engaging in service development. As Huxley (1993) notes, ‘the functions of
assessment and provision are separated from one another and the case manager
relies heavily on linkage and brokerage’ (p. 373). To accomplish this objective,
decentralised budgetary control was introduced in the trial study held by the
Personal Social Services Research Unit (PSSRU) of the University of Kent. The
study stressed incentives for the more efficient use of providers and professionals.
3) The outcome models are differentiated by content of objectives. Three models are
considered here; ‘improved service co-ordination’ ‘improved quality of life’ and
‘improved resource distribution’. The improved service co-ordination focuses
on the co-ordination of services. The co-ordination perspective also concerns
the perspective of reducing hospital or institutional care. The improved quality
of life model objectifies the personal outcomes of the better case management.
The model presumes a particular indicator such as quality of life to measure the
outcome. The improved resource distribution model stresses efficiency in the
distribution of resources. What this complex representation of the models tell
46
Masaya Shimmei
us is that ‘care management’ has to cover wide range of matters that happen to
clients and to control environments, all the while keeping an eye on efficiency
to manage revenue. It seems to me that care management started to realise both
administrative and clinical roles, which is inherently difficult to balance.
When it comes to British care management models, different factors for successful care
management started to appear. The advocates of the production of welfare approach
concentrate on aspects such as administration and economy. Care management
based on the production of welfare approach lists three conditions for successful care
management maintaining continued responsibility; 1) caseload should be limited to
manageable numbers so as not to overburden case responsibility; 2) staff training, an
arrangement to neighbouring catchment areas and flexibility of procedures, in addition
to a decentralised budget for incentives are necessary to improve the accountability
for defined caseload budget limits; case recording system and review; 3) the procedure
of care management should be modified to enhance the better use of resources by
providing information on unit costs and costs of service packages (Challis & Davies,
1986). On the other hand, Huxley (1993) described that case management works
best when the target groups are narrowly defined, with clear service goals equipped
by affluent social care resources. For example, Huxley distinguished between mental
and physical disabilities and thought that the brokerage/advocacy model works best
for physically disabled groups. On the other hand, in viewing outcomes as indices for
successful care management, he also emphasised the importance of incentives, which
induce competition for efficient and sufficient service outcomes (Ibid., p. 378).
2.2.3 Reflecting cultural and political context of case/care management
We have seen how the multi-faceted case management approaches developed in the
US provided a source to transplant variations in the evolution of care management. To
comply with the community care reform, a number of British scholars started to study
the US case management system to seek to find a way to make it applicable to the UK
context. The most notable alteration occurred when the concept of case management
was amalgamated into the production of welfare idea in the UK. The advocates of the
production of the welfare model regard measuring outcomes using adequate methods
as indispensable to achieve the objective because care management is ambiguous as
a concept (Baldwin, 1997). In the British paradigm, organisational structure, content
and outcome assessment became important factors of care management. The above
literature review on case/care management reveals that the modelling of case/care
management functions, especially the dispute over the brokerage/advocacy models, lack
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
47
a reflection of the macro policy reforms that occurred in the realm of social services.
What is lacking in the current debate on the effective case/care management model is
a discussion of the political aspects of care management because the values reflected
in the actual care management services are realised by how the outcome measures are
selected.
Payne (2000) reflected the political aspects on the case management and indicated a
way to evaluate innovations in social work. Case management was contextualised in the
British political circumstances and differentiated by three forms of case management.
These forms are comprised of 1) social care entrepreneurship, 2) brokerage and 3)
multiprofessional case management. Below, Table 2.3 explains each form and lists the
possible political consequences of these forms.
Table 2.3. Forms of Case Management and their Adaptation in Britain (Payne, 2000, p. 84)
Form
Purpose
Service
Outcomes
1) Social care entre- workers plan
preneurship
and implement a
package of services
in consultation with
users
cost constraint,
politically motivated introduction of
“quasi-markets”a
“community care”
reforms of adult
local municipal
services
2) Brokerage
workers help users
plan and manage
services of their
choice
empowerment of
“disabled adults”
“direct payments” to limited development
disabled adults who
organise their own
support
3) Multiprofessional
assertive outreach
keyworker from a
to isolated users to
multiprofessional
team co-ordinates
reduce risk
complex provision to
a user
“deinstitutionalisation” of people with
learning disability
and mental illness
bureaucratisation of
social work task
effective maintenance of otherwise
at risk patients
* Numbers on the heading are added by the author.
a
The quasi-markets, according to Bartlett and Le Grand (1993, p. 10), have following specific qualities. First, it is
a market because it aims to replace the state monopoly of services with plural providers in competition. Second,
it differs from the pure market. Although providers compete with each other on the supply side they are not
necessarily private. They could be either a public, private or non-profit organisation. On the demand side, users’
purchasing power comes from an earmarked budget or ‘voucher’ instead of the assets they have. Third, the choices
of purchasing decisions are made by third party such as social services department or care manager in community
care or an authority such as a GP in health care.
1) The social care entrepreneurship form is a social service-led model to actualise
governments’ political purposes in implementing community care reform and
consequent cost containment utilising quasi-market discipline into social service
system (Payne, 2000, p. 84). Cost constraints appear to make assessment not
as a way to produce needs led services but as a way of rationing the services.
As a result, it has become more bureaucratic than flexible, what original case
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Masaya Shimmei
management was meant to realise (Payne, 2000, p. 86). The bureaucracy of the
community care reforms excluded the partnership with the users (Ibid., p. 89).
2) The brokerage form stems from the empowerment movement for disabled people
to allow choices with a direct service payment. It does not work well where
service is scarce and risks surrounding clients is high. There is an impartial
power balance between managers/policymakers and clients who belongs to
groups such as mentally ill, learning disabled or elderly people (Payne, 2000, p.
85). Under the community care reform, elderly clients who were the main users
of the community care services were excluded from direct payment. To placate
the dissatisfaction the empowerment and participatory aspects of brokerage form
were utilised (Ibid., p. 87, p. 89). The interests of users who want to gain control
will likely to make conflicts with attempts to manage the service use (Ibid., p. 89).
3) The multi-professional form is likely to reproduce the existing professional and
organisational divisions reflecting medical control and power in a complex
community setting (Payne, 2000, p. 86). Through the community care reform,
multi-professional form changed from the population approach to reflect a
reinforced view of rationing. It originally utilised assertive outreach to discover
unmet needs but targeting aiming to limit the case to the most vulnerable became
popular because it is regarded more effective under the cost and time constraints
(Ibid., pp. 87–88). Contacts by multi-professional services will limit to achieve
cost containment (Ibid., p. 89). The interests of the powerful professionals may
restrict the work of case management and evade the cost containment pressures
directed by the policy (Ibid.).
In the British context, the two differing approaches to care management proposed
by the Griffiths (managerial) and Wagner (professional) reports caused confusion
when implemented (Ibid., p. 87). Payne attributes these political consequences and
mixed outcomes to the existing lack of power of the case management in the current
organisational and political contexts (Ibid., p. 90). The analysis of the social work
innovations by Payne suggests that case management is not a mere technical construct
reflecting the professional theory of case management. Rather, it is a political construct
influenced by positive and negative possibilities offered in the innovation, social and
political contexts, dynamics of interests among stakeholders and political power (Ibid.).
2.3 Case/Care Management, Gerontology and Social Work
The notions of ‘case management’ and ‘care management’ are used interchangeably in
clinical and academic publications reflecting their historical development. Functionally,
the two terms are similar but these terms have evolved reflecting cultural and political
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
49
contexts (Baldwin, 1997). As a result, a clinical concept such as care management is
not solely a technical term but reflects the values of policy idea and culture which has
provided the base of new clinical method: the policy idea and technique goes hand in
hand, mobilising professionals through the manipulation of professional behaviour via
a cognitive process to realise policy goals. Of course this process is affected by each
professional’s cultural interpretation. The actual meaning of care management could
not be articulated without taking the political and social interests of stakeholders who
are regarded as an interpretive medium between the policy arena and policy outcomes
(Payne, 2000).
One of the commonalities between care management and social work is the
professionalisation process of the both occupations. The history of the professionalisation
of social workers reveals that social workers have long struggled to develop a body
of social work expertise and professional identity (Toren, 1969). On the other hand,
the differences between care management and social work is attributable to different
approaches and perspectives taken towards knowledge production. Social work research
has been continuously theorising expertise based on clients in connection with social
systems, and is especially sensitive to the power aspect of social work.
Historically, the expertise of social work was regarded as unclear, humane and
performing weak evidence-based tasks because social work expertise always has to take
the totality of human needs into account. However, in practice the interpretation of
human needs varies among individuals. This variation in interpretation demands the
mode of social work to be soft and flexible enough to comply with this special quality of
human needs. This very nature of social work makes the standardisation of procedures
extremely difficult. As a result, it has been demanded that social workers offer more
engagement and subjectivity than other professions. This necessity of interaction
between two human partners and the multitude of possible tasks mean that social work
interventions can never be standardised, which means that it can never be thoroughly
evidence-based.
Knowledge production would not secure the professional status of social work,
but there is an inclination and greater emphasis on developing techniques to devalue
participation in social action and social policy making (Bisno, 1969; Bisno & Cox,
1997). Thus, the link between research and the evolution of social work professionalism
has been regarded as imperative for social work research because the effect of the
professionalisation of social work has been regarded as a double-edged sword (D’Cruz
& Jones, 2004; Juhila, Pösö, Hall, & Parton, 2003, p. 15; Toren, 1969; 1972). As Everitt
& Campling, (1992) accurately point out ‘…if the purpose of the craft of welfare
professionalism is to strive towards human well-being, justice and equality, then
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Masaya Shimmei
intellectual work and research is fundamental to reveal the structure and mechanisms
that generate and maintain inequality’ (p. 3, cited in D’Cruz & Jones, 2004, p. 7).
Knowledge of social work underlies clients’ complex relations with power, autonomy
and ethics within social settings. During the half a decade of struggles, social work
research continuously paid special attention to understand the complexity of social work
expertise, utilising own disciplinary framework to analyse aspects of knowledge, power,
autonomy and ethics within macro social forces. Even in the current literature, there
is an endeavour to develop social work as a discipline, which reflects evidence-based
and increasingly theory-oriented approaches (e.g. Fook, Ryan, & Hawkins, 1997; Healy,
2014; Payne, 2001). However, the value of social work research reflecting emancipatory
objectives remains key. This tradition shows that social work has been regarded not
merely a technical service but as a service that embodies ethical values (Toren, 1969, p.
148; White, 1999, p. 99; D’Cruz & Jones, 2004).
Gerontology is an important part of professional knowledge base of both social work
and care management. As evidence-based policymaking became popular in medicine,
gerontology as an interdisciplinary field also has been affected by this move. While
positivist gerontology has more power to affect the standardisation of vocabularies to
explain senescence, interdisciplinary knowledge production involves an asymmetrical
power balance and division among the disciplines (Neysmith & MacAdam, 1999). The
central problem of this chasm appears when bridging the disciplines by simply merging
without recognising the different epistemologies developed in each discipline. Mixing
the different value system under the name of the scientific activity has become a schema
that blurs ethical side of the knowledge production inherent in different academic
disciplines. This schism is crucial when knowledge production is applied to policy
making.
In practice, the cleavage between a positivist and other gerontology approaches still
remains large due to the difficulty to develop common epistemological recognition.
Gerontology, according to Katz, is a discourse. The academic field of senescence has
become a process of subjectification by the power of knowledge (Katz, 1996). The very
nature of interdisciplinary character of gerontology proceeds to subjectify the fields
of body, population and the individual, leading to disciplining the life of old age. As
a result, the process of disciplining, corresponding to the fields of subjectification is
accomplished through the use of ‘texts, code, model, survey and theory’ as tools to
problematise the field of the body and population. The idea produced in disciplinary
knowledge such as coherency, objectivity and autonomy, for example, should be
understood as rhetorical surfaces that obscure deeper political and hierarchical orders
(Ibid., p. 2). Thus, common and standardised signs, symbols, terms, theories produced
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
51
in the field of gerontology are regarded as catalysers of disciplining function of such
science.
As a result of changes surrounding care managers, they may experience possible
value and ethical dilemmas because the expertise of care management itself is inherently
contradictory, due to the fact that both bureaucratic and professional tasks are performed
under the pressure of profit making. In order to explain this dilemma, three points need
to be scrutinized. The first point is that the tasks of care management are carried out on
the street-level. The second point regards the knowledge bases that comprise the tasks of
care management. Central to this issue is to analyse care management as an occupation
with a certain knowledge base. The third point is the organisational alignment that
affects the tasks of care management. The recent change in the balance in welfare mix
offers the key to an understanding of such an alignment. In fact, any rules and principles
are realised at the street-level requires a specific analytical frame to grasp the impact of
organisational change to the task of care managers. What these facts suggest is that the
intersection of the domain of knowledge production that related professionals and that
of organisation, as these two domains have particular importance to the form of care
management as professional expertise.
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3 ‘CARE MANAGEMENT’ AS AN
IMPLEMENTATION TOOL
Care management is not merely ‘professional innovations, led by professional,
intellectual, research-based evidenced information’ and how this new profession
‘operates is crucially affected by the political processes among stakeholders surrounding
innovation’ (Payne, 2000, p. 90). Payne suggests that research in policy and practice need
not only improve the efficacy of proposed objectives, but also try to analyse the interests
and contexts in implementation as well. Because of this, I see the construction of ‘care
management’ revealed in the complex interaction of different realms surrounding
care managers’ everyday life, which constructs the actuality of ‘care management’
practice as a whole. This complex intersubjective aspect of ‘care management’ occupies
a position as a policy implementation tool. To provide new insight into a current policy
development of welfare states, I employ a discourse-based approach reflecting both a
Foucauldian approach of discourse and ethnomethodology to explain the interplay of
macro policy and micro implementation. Through this approach, my aim is to describe
how collectively and individually the policy learning has been accomplished. In this
chapter, I intend to justify the very approach I have taken to study the complex interplay
between knowledge, institutions, organisations and human agency in constructing the
field of social work. For that reason, my intention in this research is not to understand
only one facet of the institutional life. I intend to include the reality that ensures in all
its multiplicity in the living border by the human agency of the care managers in Japan.
3.1 Macro Institution and Micro Implementation
In this research, I try to look into both ‘discourse-in-practice and discursive practice
(Holstein & Gubrium, 2011, p. 344)’ by applying a two-fold research methodology. First,
I study the macro discourse-in-practice and then reflecting the results into the discursive
practice. This is done by utilising narrative as a way to interweave both practices in the
story-telling form for comprehensive interpretation.
An institution is a social construction formed by a collective imagination as a product
of a meaning-producing act by individual actors. Human agency is derived from its
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
53
surrounding environments through knowledge production, institutions, professional
orientations, organisational settings and their everyday life because these are the sites
where ‘interpretive resources exist as cultural conditions awaiting the occasions of their
applicability’ (Gubrium & Holstein, 1997, p. 170). The institutional field is interpreted and
constructed through continuous negotiation by the circumstances of surrounding actors
and collectives, which exert powers and subjectivities. However, to explain the complex
agency and structural relations witnessed in program evaluation, past research tends to
treat the knowledge producing domain and formal implementation domain comprised
from organisational circumstances and an actual expertise process. Institutional order
is objectified through reification of social reality (Berger & Luckman, 1967, p. 88) and
creation, preservation and reproduction of the institution is accomplished through
interpretation (Gubrium & Holstein, 1997). Hence, the elimination of the domain
of knowledge production from circumstances that affects individual agency causes
problems because knowledge production is a crucial source of social forces (Flyvbjerg,
2001; Gubrium & Holstein, 1997).
Based on this assumption, I assume that ‘care management’ as an institution
empirically appears in several different realms. One realm in the textual or normative
levels can be seen in policy, statute and professional texts. Another is on the organisational
level, where the requirements and objectives of organisation influence the appearance of
the concepts. Still another is the everyday setting, where actors make sense of their role
in own cultural context. These three realms are mixed and internalised through identity
building by continuous discourses, developed by interactions among the mangers,
clients, families and other relevant actors. Discourses basically mean a language
interchange, which appears everywhere. It is not simply symbolic formulations such as
ideas or ideologies but it is a dynamic mode of practices that are systematically formed
by utterances operated in a historical register according to a Foucauldian definition
(Foucault, 2014). The Foucauldian concept of discourse aims at answering why question,
while ethnomethodology shares the view of the constitutive power of language use by
scrutinising discursive practices in the everyday: it intends to clarify how every day
practices are carried out in certain ways (Gubrium & Holstein, 2011, p. 344–345).
How then to link these three differing realms? To contextualise actors’ active
interpretation of the living borders and macro level, one of the answers for such an
inquiry is to deploy the ‘conditions of possibility’ (Foucault, 1996a), which have the
possibility to artfully combine interpretive practices and the circumstantial (Gubrium &
Holstein, 1997, p. 169). The conditions of possibility appear in the discourses. Therefore,
interpretive practices and the circumstances observed in professional expertise are
likely to be constructed through discourse. According to Miller and Holstein (1991),
street-level bureaucracies are accomplished through rhetoric employed in language
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Masaya Shimmei
and conversations. Language is treated with special qualities because it serves as both
‘medium and resource which persons use to organise and express their orientations
to matters of practical concern and to persuade others to act in preferred ways’ and
‘language use is a basic aspect of the social organisation of the work process’ (Miller &
Holstein, 1991, p. 178). This quality of language not only provides a basis for interpretation
for macro institution but also functions as sense-making tools utilised by people who
assigned to convey expertise to clients and possibly to legitimise everyday practice. As
a medium, language appears in the conversation, which shares distinct place in social
work practice (Jokinen, Juhila, & Pösö, 1999).
Discourses, organisation and knowledge
Whether the act of coping to change in the policy direction caused by bureaucracies or
voluntary act emerged from creativity, the act of the individual is observed in everyday
life settings and the act relies on the interpretation of its environment by the very actors
themselves.
Institution, organisations and the knowledge domain affect individual agency
through sense making as a cognitive act carried out by individuals. The very institutional
field is neither given nor static but rather is a dynamic construct of the political domain.
These three domains dynamically interact with each other in two ways. Firstly, quite
often, the organisational field is likely to converge with similar kinds of organisational
types (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). This so-called isomorphism of organisations
is accomplished by organisations’ behaviour to adapt to the macro institutional
environments surrounding them (Hannan & Freeman, 1977). Macro institutions also
affect the individuals by discourses constructed by policy makers, academics and media
(Bourdieu, 1991).
Secondly, in human service organisations, organisational managers quite often treat
knowledge production as an exogenous factor to the organisational process. Managers
tend to disregard reproduction and standardisation process of terms and concepts within
the organisational process. As a consequence of such organisational process, it dismisses
differing and conflicting interests surrounding very knowledge base they try to rely on
(Smith, 2009, p. 21). Let us take the function of ‘supervision’ in care management, for
example. Supervision as a method was developed utilising the ‘human relations model’
from organisational studies. Supervision is commonly employed to familiarise new care
managers by giving instructions and consultation by senior supervisors. Although the
objective of the supervision is to overcome problematic situations surrounding care
managers, it should be noted that without reflecting on the negotiated features of power,
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
55
this method misleadingly treats the knowledge produced outside of the organisational
domain as a given and fails to question the ethical elements that conflict with the
concept of ‘supervision’ itself.
A crucial attribute of different layers of formally organised domains is the way of
knowledge production (Foucault, 1996a). The boundaries of actual everyday experience
of individuals are contiguous to formally organised, professionalised and disciplinary
practices (Gubrium & Holstein, 1997). Thus, the experiences of individuals are
continuously embedded as a publicly and formally arranged environment formed by
a knowledge base, which soon functions as the foundation of ‘deprived’ interpretation.
The knowledge then will be aligned in policies and programs to reveal a material world
by translating it into political and administrative terms, concepts and theories utilised
in policy/institutional/administrative contexts. The policy and program leads to the
creation of expertise and its formal affiliation in the organisations. As a consequence,
organisations become sites for developing interpretive instructions for enhancing
the various modes of understanding of the experiences in material world (Ibid., pp.
207–208). Hence, organisational domains functions as ‘institutional sites’ mediated by
diverse professional or disciplinary perspectives, that ‘the sites of local culture can be
venues for a variety of sights’ (Ibid., 1997, p. 180).
Practice, ethics, power and narratives in everyday practice
Scrutinising discourses at both macro discourses and micro levels of discursive
practice would allow for the institutional interpretation of the consequences of ‘care
management’ implementation. But a pitfall of the act of interpretation is that it is carried
out by human agency affected by the use of language in cultural contexts, in which
power is exerted. According to Foucault, power is defined not as a concrete entity.
Power is reversible which set ‘a dense net of omnipresent relations’, situated in places
(cited in Flyverg, 2001, p. 131). These places are such as in ‘centres’ and ‘institutions,
or entity as a possession. Because signs and language influenced by power mediate the
internal cognitive process to develop sense making, some criticise the heavy reliance on
language as ‘ontological gerrymandering’, meaning that the actuality of storytelling is
a self-referencing act which draws a line between the ‘spoken’ and ‘unspoken’ (Woolgar
& Pawluch, 1985).
To accommodate this critique, I treat the act of storytelling as a way to give meaning
to ‘unspoken’ constructed narratives between the speaker and the audience (Flyvbjerg,
2001, pp. 129–140). This is not to say that the process can insulate all the meaning of
the speakers. Rather, it gives space to the ‘unspoken’ to allow multiple interpretations
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Masaya Shimmei
between the speaker and the audience. It is the ‘narrative truth’ that I intend to
scrutinise (Spence, 1984). Reflecting this methodological imagination, I use the method
of the interview and analyse informants’ narratives as the one of the suitable ways of
describing actors’ interpretation of the institutions. Narrative is defined as ‘a broad class
of discourse types’ (Hinchman & Hinchman, 1997). I treated interviewed conversations
as narratives because I regard the essence of the interview method as not extracting
rationality or a simple truth per se but rather to regard it as active storytelling and the
construction of meaning.
The narratives then interpreted by using ‘analytical bracketing’ (Gubrium &
Holstein, 1997, pp. 40–41; Schutz, 1970). This is the method that animates the analysis
allowing for interplay and tensions between the interpretative and structural aspects of
social reality that ‘encourages the researcher to alternate between questions concerning
what is going on, under what conditions, and how that is being accomplished’ and as a
combination of the two domains going back and forth, ‘they provide a multidimensional
space for raising why questions, while remaining situated at the lived border of reality
and representation’ (Gubrium & Holstein, 1997, p. 211).
3.2 Research Design
Thinking of applying discourse and ethnomethodology to combine both macro and
micro aspects of the current LTCI policy reform and care management implementation,
and micro-institutionalism (Rice, 2012), for example, offers a clue that suggests the
‘missing-link’ between policy and implementation. It provides ‘a theoretical framework
for bringing together two scientific approaches that are equally vital to an understanding
of social policy-related issues, but which have hitherto lead a rather separate life; culturist
or phenomenological approaches on one hand and rationalist or realist approaches on
the other hand’ (Ibid., p. 1056). The specific advantage of the micro-institutionalism is
that it stresses the importance of the organisational and local contexts where interactions
among actors who construct the welfare states take place. The micro-institutionalism
distinguishes between the macro, mezzo and micro levels of implementation. On the
macro level, the role of worker and the client is distinguished. In terms of the worker, the
macro structure provides values and a knowledge base through education and training.
On the mezzo level, the focus is on organisations where workers act. In addition, the
approach closely examines interaction between practice and organisational dynamics
such as economy, culture and social relations within the organisation. Table 3.1 provides
overall research design for the study; in order to identify discourses on the macro LTC
policy and micro care management implementation, I start with a policy analysis
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based on a historical discourse analysis using literature and media articles in Chapter
4. Actual implementation of the LTCI and discourses will be described in Chapter 5.
From Chapter 6 to 8, I demonstrate an implementation study of care managers using a
narrative approach, trying to articulate how care managers develop their understanding
using discursive resources cognitively adapted to macro policy change in Chapter 9.
Table 3.1. Description of Research Design
Research questions
Theoretical
approach
Data and method
Key issues
Chapter(s)
How did Japan
choose LTCI system
as a way to cope with
the increasing social
care demand?
Policy learning,
change in political
atmosphere, policy
agenda
International debate,
social problems,
tracing historical
policy development
Policy reform,
policy learning,
welfare mix
How did Japanese
policy makers, media
and academics
develop the Japanese
paradigm of care
management?
Policy discourses,
policy learning,
collective cognitive
process
Describing discourses
using debates and
opinions expressed
in newspapers,
academic reports and
policy reports
Multiple political
interests of media,
4,5
academic and
professional groups
How do care
managers construct
the practice of care
management in the
current Japanese
LTCI system?
Street-level
bureaucracy,
professionalisation,
organisational theory,
gender
Narrative analysis
using interviews with
care managers
Everyday practice,
emotional labour,
gender
6,7,8
How did the policy
learning affect
the micro level
implementation
through care
management
practices?
Macro-micro
linkage on policy
implementation
process
Interpreting results of
the previous chapters
Dilemma,
ambivalence
and professional
realignment and
mobilisation
9
3.2.1
4,5
Policy analysis based on a historical discourse
In order to analyse discourses of LTC policy reform and development of care
management in Japan, I followed three steps using the sources mentioned below. First, I
scrutinized major academic literature about the Japanese LTC policy and welfare states
and constructed a broad framework.
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Masaya Shimmei
Next, I have employed a systematic newspaper search utilizing web based search
engines developed by major five newspaper companies in Japan. A particular
characteristic of these major five newspapers is as follows: Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi
Shimbun and Yomiuri Shimbun are called the three major daily newspapers, where the
Asahi is known for its centre-leftist political tone. The Yomiuri represents conservativeright whereas the Mainichi stands on a more neutral tone but has strength in its
commentary. Nihon Keizai Shimbun (The Nikkei) is a daily newspaper specialised in
business and economics and widely read by business people. Sankei Shimbun is known
as radical right wing newspaper. To find the relevant articles, I used the term ‘kaigohoken’ (long-term care insurance) as a key word. Table 3.2 is the transitions in number
of articles during the period. Then, I reviewed Japanese newspapers using ‘kaigo-shien’
or ‘kea-manejimento’ and academic articles on care management to specify the debates
and to search evidence on the outcome of the care management. Table 3.3 shows the
numbers of articles of care management in the major newspapers in Japan. The duration
of search period for newspaper articles was from 1994 to 2008, with exception of the
Nikkei, which the data was available from 2000 when I have carried out the article
search on December, 2008. I have categorized these titles according to issues in interest
and sought out to relate with the LTCI and care management policy development to
express public opinions, how Japanese media contributed to build the public discourses.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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Table 3.2. Transitions of Number of Articles on the LTCI of Five Major Newspapers in Japan
(1994–2008)
Newspapers
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Asahi
44
190
725
529
1,063
3,434
2,990
2,150
Mainichi
48
114
802
564
1,316
4,993
4,581
1,652
Nikkei
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
927
325
Sankei
31
81
347
212
193
1,292
989
312
Yomiuri
42
109
467
348
362
4,399
5,719
2,012
Total
165
494
2,341
1,653
2,934
14,118
15,206
6,451
%
0.2%
0.7%
3.4%
2.4%
4.3%
20.7%
22.3%
9.4%
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Asahi
Newspapers
1,295
1,251
1,087
1,015
1,004
984
2007
737
2008
11,125
Total
Mainichi
986
931
828
820
786
851
596
14,070
Nikkei
232
249
365
315
263
241
189
1,252
Sankei
208
228
390
454
465
443
333
3,457
Yomiuri
1,363
1,404
1,050
959
913
1,071
611
13,458
Total
4,084
4,063
3,720
3,563
3,431
3,590
2,466
68,279
%
6.0%
6.0%
5.4%
5.2%
5.0%
5.3%
3.6%
100.0%
(NA, not available)
Table 3.3. Number of Articles on Care Management of Five Major Newspapers in Japan
(1994–2008)
Number of articles
%
Asahi
Newspapers
2,125
27.6%
Mainichi
1,796
23.4%
Nikkei
452
5.9%
Sankei
778
10.1%
Yomiuri
2,537
33.0%
Total
7,688
3.2.2 Developing narratives with care managers in Japan
To explore the relevance of the LTC policy reform to care management through an
examination of care managers as street-level workers who implement the policy, I
conducted site visits to see the actual work and interview certified care managers (kaigo60
Masaya Shimmei
shien-senmonin) and senior certified care managers (shunin-kaigo-shien-senmonin). In
addition to care managers, I also interviewed related actors to descriptively understand
the environment surrounding care managers. These individuals include the users
of the LTCI system, certified social workers (shakaifukushishi), administrators and
representatives of non-profit organisations as enforcers of the program. Their interviews
are not, however, given as much focus as those of the care managers.
I analyse the interviews of the care managers, which were collected by a series of faceto-face interviews. Though I describe the method of analysis in detail in the following
section, in brief, I took the unit of analysis as narrative based on my epistemological
stance to the use of language in the social research. I took the position not using
language at face value or as some kind of truth but rather as a set of signs representing
the dynamism of the sense-making process and structure of narrators and interviewers
because I consider care managers as actors who subjectively weave their work in
various forms of narratives reflecting their expertise, organisational settings and the
local environment which directly affects their daily practices. Narrative links different
levels of everyday life experience to the institutional level, articulating a holistic and
comprehensive interpretation of the everyday practices of care managers’ work (Holstein
& Gubrium, 2011, p. 349). Thus, I try to see how care managers attempt to develop their
own identity using narrative as a device. The focus is on the aim and function of the job,
and whether care managers evaluate it differently.
Interviewing as constructing narratives of ‘care management’ practice
The interview method in this study is used to capture the plurality of the lifeworld
and to dynamically create a new perspective on co-authoring between interviewer
and respondent. In addition, language holds a special character in that people develop
identity thorough story telling. In extending the identity development function of
language, conversation is one form of adapting such a quality of language use (Riessman,
2008). A salient character and possibility of language depends on context, where and
with whom the exchange occurs. Using an interview as a method to collect, research
creates the possibility of having workers ‘talk to or with researchers without presence
of the clients’ and in an interview situation (Jokinen, Juhila, & Pösö, 1999, p. 10). Thus,
one specific aspect of interviewing social workers as a mode of conversation is the
process for exchanging the view of interviewed and interviewers. Through the process
of conversation, the narrators ‘construct not only the general characteristics of a client
suitable for community service (regularity, commitment, life control, attitude towards
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
61
a criminal lifestyle), but also the means which they as social workers possess for finding
out about those characteristics’ (Ibid., p. 11).
To reflect the above-mentioned characteristics of social work research, I take the view
that the act of interview, which is one mode of conversation, is a process of discourse coconstruction. According to Kvale (1996), ‘(c)onversation is not only a source to grasp the
experienced truth by the respondents but also a form, which ensures ontological plurality.
This plurality of truth serves as foundation of reciprocal knowledge construction by
conversation between interviewer and respondents’ (p. 5). The interviewer’s role and
attitudes in conversation has to be taken into account when constructing the narratives.
According to Riessman (2008), ‘interviewers are active participants in interview and
need some degree of seduction to develop narrative. Referring to Mishra, she stresses
that interviewers and interviewees ‘invite stories rather than discourage ‘digressions’
from a pre-determined focus of interest’; the process reassures us that the ‘meaning is
created in dynamic conversation with others collaborative conversation’ (Ibid., p. 315).
Thus, the dialogue developed in the interview is not a mere carriage of contents but it
is a co-produced narrative, which is made through antagonising, negotiated, seduced.
The research interview utilises a form of conversation as a specific professional
conversational technique, which is sharply distinguished from ordinary conversation
(Kvale, 1996, p. 50). The conversation used in the research process is based on the
epistemological premise that the human world is a conversational reality. One must
be acquainted with the fact that an interview is a process which has four eminent
qualities: approach, understanding, perspective and access, which are attributable to
different epistemologies. For example, a postmodern approach towards interrelations,
a hermeneutical understanding of the interpretation of meaning, a phenomenological
perspective on the life world, a dialectical access to meaning co-construction of the new
and dynamic relations of knowledge and action of the interview (Ibid., p. 38). In order
to reflect the co-producing character of the interview into designing the actual process
of research requires awareness of the close connection between sampling and data
construction. Originally, the frameworks had been developed theoretically but they
have been continuously revised through dialogues with interviewees. Thus, I regard
the conversations developed between the interviewees and interviewers as products of
interaction in actual interview process.
The importance of improvisation in the interview is also a crucial precondition of
successful analysis in describing the linkage between the multiple roles and domains
of everyday life. This is because interviewers in constructionist interviewing possess an
improvising character that activates respondents as storytellers (Holstein & Gubrium,
1995, p. 38). Thus, the interviewers’ role as a stimulator to enhance role shifts should
not be overlooked. The role of the interviewer is to manage the entire interview process
62
Masaya Shimmei
by not only to sticking to the research question but also to help respondents to make
meaningful plots reflecting local conditions to set and renew the whole framework of
the interview. Through this interview process the relations between interviewer and
respondents are constantly renewed and developing (Ibid., p. 14).
3.3 Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are key in research (Kvale, 1996, p. 109). This is because social
research is a moral enterprise, which deals with people’s everyday lives. First of all, as
the main instrument for obtaining knowledge (Ibid., p. 117), I have a moral obligation
to the social science community and to society as a whole. To comply with the code of
ethics on knowledge production, I have developed this research project aims to improve
care management and the situations of both the people doing the work and those using
the services.
Protecting informants’ view and benefits
I have a moral obligation to the interviewees. I need to anticipate that I would develop
denial towards the interviewees’ experienced stories. By the same token, I would be
‘co-opted’ (Kvale, 1996, p. 118) by their stories. The ethical position as a researcher and
as a human being was difficult to achieve. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1990) suggest that
compromise is partly possible by taking a reflective attitude and being involved in
their lives, and if necessary refining one’s sensitivity through entering into continuous
dialogue with disagreement (cited in Kvale, 1996, p. 123). Thus, issues of representation
should be considered seriously. There are two ways to deal with ethical issues.
The first concerns the functional and ontological process. To convey the interview
process in an ethical way, I developed a guide and consent form to give to the
interviewees before the interview to ensure that it is voluntary, that they know they can
terminate the interview at any time, and that they are free to stop the recording at any
time. All of the interview data was transcribed and the contents were checked using
the transcribed data and the recording. I organised the files assigning de-identified
numbers to avoid the dissemination of personal information. Before conducting the
interview, the study plan and interview protocol was screened by the ethical review
board of the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology. The committee evaluated
the protective measures for confidentiality, secure data management, the method for
informed consent, and possible risks and benefits to the interviewee were evaluated. To
maintain privacy during the interview, I paid attention to the venue used to conduct
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
63
the interview. For interviews, I reserved a single room except on occasions when it was
not possible because some respondents chose to be interviewed at their own workplace.
All recorded digital files were deleted from the IC recorder after being copied to
a separate hard disk, which was secured in a locked cabinet. Each party signed an
informed consent form. Both parties kept a copy of each letter of consent to use the
interviewed data for research purposes on the condition of the use of privacy measures
to ensure that stories could not be traced to an individual interviewee.
Translation as an issue of ethics
The reflexive speech act by members produce the ‘fine power of culture’ to make social
norms institution’ (Sacks, 1972, p. 218). However, the reporting of results also requires
ethical attention because the intentional and unfair use of excerpts seriously goes against
the moral base of social science and representation of interviewees. I am a Japanese
researcher who uses Japanese as a native language with common shared social norms
to convey the speech act and analyse the mundane act from the act. I have developed
a method to avoid the conscious and unconscious manipulation of the conversation
because the interviews were conducted in Japanese. First, I asked a third person who
is a bilingual social scientist with a doctoral degree in social work, to translate the
transcripts used in this dissertation. In the following, I discuss ethical considerations
in a wider context.
The ethical issue in translation occupies a central position in this qualitative research
because of three aspects. First, I deal with policy learning, meaning that the concept of
‘care management’ is developed in the Anglo-American context, and then implemented
in Japan as kaigo-shien. Second, the data constructed for analysis using the interview
method and consecutive analysis is carried out in Japanese by a Japanese researcher.
Finally, translation is in itself an ethical act and the role of translation requires its own
epistemological stance. Excerpts from the data would be presented to an international
audience in English but direct translation of either policy terms or the everyday language
would never respond to same nuances. This stance reflects facts that every translation
is an interpretive act, negotiated and reconstructed within power relations (Temple &
Young, 2004).
Translation issues have relevance to recent policy learning as an attempt to eliminate
cultural differences. Employing the term ‘policy transfer’, Wilson (2001) commented
on the importance of policy translators. Globalisation is having an effect on the
process of homogenising nations and the standardisation of policy measures mainly
through international organisations. This consequently eliminates local historical and
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Masaya Shimmei
cultural differences. This elimination represents power relations which positions policy
translators as power holders to decide what should be in the manuscript and what
should not. Moreover, she points out that common terms and values that we have taken
for granted may hold differences in interpretation across religious or historical contexts
(Ibid., p. 323). Thus, the use of translation in indices or in concepts used as a process of
policy transfer often standardises nations and reflected in the construction of the social
problems (see also, Spector & Kitsuse, 1987).
I had planned the research using both Japanese and English, but the data is
constructed by interviews with Japanese care managers using their mother tongue.
After the interviews, I placed the Japanese interview data into a verbatim transcription
and checked the content line-by-line, word-by-word. I coded and analysed the interview
texts in Japanese. After a series of research procedures, I started to write up the findings
to express the research done in my native language into English. In this process, I
initially translated the texts into verbatim translation and then started the analysis. As
I proceeded to do the analysis and presented analysed segments in English, I decided to
ask for translation assistance from my Japanese co-researcher, who had experience in
studying social work in the US and held a doctoral degree in social work. We have been
collaborating in several projects on caregiving since 2000 concerning international
comparative studies on elder care issues. During these projects, we have shared common
stances and understandings about the Japanese social care systems and its cultural
influence. The reason I had decided to ask co-researcher to participate in the study as
a translator was that I have subconsciously noticed that the issue of representation and
cultural differences should be taken into account. The issue of representation, namely,
who is talking for whom, came to the fore. The translated texts are not just about carrying
a ‘correct’ meaning but it is about how to convey and reflect the ‘culture’ (Xian, 2008).
Through translation, a full representation would never succeed, thus if the translation
process was just a technical matter then it could be problematic.
Qualitative researchers are now starting to overcome these boundaries of translation.
One of attempts trying to transcend this dilemma is adapting a constructionist approach.
According to Larkin, Dierck de Casterlé and Schotsmans (2007), a constructionist view
to translations regards the translator not merely as an ontological or functional role as a
technician but as a holder of power to select the focus and words to be translated. It is this
limitation to an objective stance in translation that demands an invitation to translators
into the interpretative domain as a collaborator of the research activity introducing and
enhancing dialogue in different understandings of culture, and in my case, gender. To
overcome such a dilemma, I changed my epistemological stance to translation, inviting
the translator as collaborator. This process has turned out be an important turn because
we often discussed different views that emerged and different understandings of the
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
65
Japanese terms (Temple & Young, 2004, p. 172). For example, as a male researcher trying
to analyse care work that is highly gendered I had to acknowledge different vocabularies
and cultures between men and women in Japan. Thus, I learned that because of these
boundaries, a researcher couldn’t be neutral even though she/he is studying his/her own
culture.
The importance of transcription to reflect a constructionist approach to translation
lies in the fact that the qualitative materials used for analysis have to be transparent,
thus making the researchers analysis trustworthy. According to Nikander (2008),
although a rich body of literature on single language transcription is available ranging
from methodological, ideological and practical discussion, however, transcription
based on translation has been rarely taken into account (pp. 225–226). This study is
also another example of qualitative studies intended to present to international readers
using a common language such as English. Nikander also suggests that translating
a data extract ‘is not merely a question of “adapting” or “following” a “transcription
technique” but rather includes a range of practical and ideological questions concerning
the level of detail chosen in the transcription’ (Ibid., p. 226). And ‘the translations are
physically presented in print…often hidden from the reader and rarely explicitly dealt
with in research reports and written analyses’ (Ibid.). From her review, she offers three
examples of ‘translation/transcription’ forms, considering unspoken connotation, the
other includes the grammatical details used to express Finnish-English translation and
a parallel version, which the translated and original phrases are set side by side. She
also reminds us that even the structure of presenting both the translation in English
and the original reflects representational and cultural-centric issues. Because writers
try to write for clarity, a translated version comes with making certain compromises.
Acknowledging the issue of transcription on presenting translation, I decided to present
the original Japanese exchange in a parallel translation/transcription format, locating
translated segment in above the original. Also, I have to acknowledge that for researcher
as English is a second language, I also have had privilege to have my manuscripts to be
corrected by the English native scholar in the field. The translator and I spent time to
discuss how to document the interpretation process because it would serve to reflect
voice of narrators adequately. This process helped me to avoid misleading words or
incorrect grammatical usage and connotations.
Disclosing myself in the context of multidisciplinary knowledge making
In this study, I occupy two distinct positions. One is the position of a person who shares
a common language competence with the interviewed. The other is the position as
66
Masaya Shimmei
a researcher. The existence of hearer is a precondition of storytelling. As a hearer, I
listen, question and interpret the speech, and as a result of a series of interactions, the
stories are constructed. I act as a helper and catalyser for care managers to come to
a sense of the context of everyday practice through their experience. As my personal
career has developed in the realm of social science, the career needs to be taken into
account when readers encounter the conversation carried out in the interview. As a
researcher, I analyse how the care management as institution is developed using the
shared language competence of members of the society. Throughout the experience in
both social activities and the interdisciplinary research institute, I became acquainted
with how knowledge is formed and mobilised in order to comply with organisational,
local and national policy objectives. It influenced how I set the research questions and
way of analysis. My understanding of gerontology as a mode of knowledge making
(Katz, 1996), I, as an interviewer, had a tendency to ask where does that knowledge come
from and how is the knowledge interpreted in the life contexts of the interviewees. As a
result, my personal experience has possible influence to the entire research process from
selection of the research topic, research frameworks to developing research questions
and the actual interview process and analysis. To conduct the analysis, I detached myself
from the data to develop ‘ethnomethodological indifference’ to trace norms constructed
in mundane speech (Garfinkel & Sacks, 1970). Thus, hereafter, I briefly construct my
personal biography to situate myself to ascertain what kind of interviewer/interpreter I
am.
I developed my interest in social science during the course of higher education
in political science at the B.A. level then in social policy program in Finland. After
completing master’s level courses in Finland in 1995, my personal encounter in the field
of social care for the elderly dates back to the year 1996, just before the Long-Term Care
Insurance (LTCI) Act, the first comprehensive LTC system in Japan, was passed in the
Diet in 1997. I had started to participate in an advocacy activity led by a foundation
in Tokyo, which aimed to propel pseudo-American non-profit activity in the realm
of social service for elderly in the community. During my appointment, I met various
leaders and volunteers around the country, providing home help, day care and meals on
wheels services. I also took part as a volunteer in meals-on-wheels services in the area
where I lived. During my activity at the foundation as a research fellow, I participated in
developing a program for voluntary community leaders, called ‘networkers’ (Shimmei,
1998), who were expected to work as a care manager. This experience led me to develop
an interest in community care services for the elderly.
From 1998 onward, I have indirectly begun to develop my research topic on
the dilemmas faced by professionals, by accommodating myself in both different
epistemological approaches. On the one hand, I experienced an essentialist approach to
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
67
ageing when I joined the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology (TMIG). On the
other hand, I also started to take part in postgraduate study at the University of Tampere,
specialising in social work. At the program, I largely encountered a phenomenological
approach to understand society and social issues.
During my work life in the institute, my organisational environment was affected
by the continuous major structural reforms and reshuffling of members. I worked with
a variety of researchers with different backgrounds, ranging from clinical medicine,
epidemiology, nursing, architecture, cognitive-linguistics, psychology, physiotherapy
to social work. This organisational change from the above made me to participate in
numerous interdisciplinary research projects in the TMIG ranging from a randomised
control trial to prevent accidental fall by elderly carried out at the Department of
Epidemiology, survey projects to understand the LTC needs by cares and elderly with
the Department of Social Welfare, a community participation program for local elderly
residents organised by Department of Psychiatry to socio-psychological survey studies
conducted by the Department of Health Sociology: Honestly, as an entry-level research
assistant, the fact that a clear-cut positivist approach was meant to explain complex
issues surrounding ageing influenced me enormously. Nevertheless, soon after realising
how scientific knowledge is bent and adapted to actual policy, I gradually started to
develop an interest in what were the consequences of a multi-disciplinary approach in
science adapted in the actual policy implementation and how it could be accomplished.
After I joined to the TMIG in 1998, two major national pieces of legislation were
enacted during the time. One was the implementation of the LTCI system and the other
was ‘the Act on Promotion of Specified Non-profit Activities (the NPO Act)’, which
came into force in 2000. The act had a strong connection with the LTCI Act in order
to have non-profit organisations as service providers. These two major political events
enlarged my imagination on the policy issues and helped to develop my interest in the
relation between the actual enactment of the written law and the actual people who
work to implement the actual law in practice. In connection to the start-up of the new
national programs, I organised and conducted a survey between 1998 through 2003
to study how non-profit organisations in eldercare was coping with the policy change
(Shimmei, 2003). I also joined to panel studies to evaluate the implementation of the
LTCI system in urban and in rural northern Japan. This study comprised three different
components with Japanese and US scholars; three wave panel surveys, dyadic interviews
targeted to carers and care receivers and provider-bureaucrats. I was assigned to help
with the dyad interviews (Campbell & Shimmei, 2010). During these research processes,
witnessing the actual early stage implementation of the new national program to deal
with the LTC needs of the growing elderly population and seeing the availability of
information about the program raised tremendous excitement in me about the birth of
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Masaya Shimmei
a rather gigantic national program in social welfare. Moreover, witnessing the different
development and implementation processes in two different regions in Japan, I started to
question why such variations in social service delivery occur in a welfare mix situation.
This experience influenced my research interests.
3.4 Constructing, Describing and Interpreting
Practices from Care Managers’ Narratives
3.4.1
Constructing stories: Process of the fieldwork
During the period of 2008 to 2013, I interviewed 23 relevant parties: managers, staff,
clients and carers who were all involved in the LTCI services. Before interviewing care
managers, I considered developing the idea of making sets of questions concerning ‘care
management’ from the viewpoint of clients. In my interview project in Japan, I started
to interview family carers and users of LTCI services. In addition, questions on user
participation in care management arose. To fulfil this interest in the participation of
users in managed care, I contacted a non-profit organisation that promoted the making
of self-care plans. In the Japanese LTCI system, clients are entitled to plan their own care
program without appointing care managers. Thus, I organised interviews with LTCI
clients who are making their own care plan and care managers who are helping clients
make their own plans. The first interviewee had cared for parents before and after the
LTCI implementation. The other was an LTCI user. She had suffered a stroke in her mid40s, just before the LTCI came into force. During these interviews with users, I became
aware of the issues in care management and clients’ participation in arranging care
services. I also learned about the controversial governmental guidelines that mobilised
care managers to act as gatekeepers. These in-depth interviews with ‘critical clients’
made me aware that they somehow believed that care managers reflected the values of
administrators and not those of clients. Thus, I started to develop primitive inquiries
around these issues, such as: Are there differences between the care managers? To what
extent do the disciplinary differences, the mode of service delivery or different cultural
orientations appear in the work of these street-level bureaucrats? How does the role
of the public sector in care management arise while analysing transcripts so that the
differences of role and perception among certified senior care managers and ordinary
care managers can be considered?
The interview period can be divided it into two phases. The first half of the interview
period was used to develop knowledge concerning the basic theoretical inquiry on care
management and the LTCI system in general. The second half of the interview period was
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
69
used to supplement the basic theoretical interests by adding two theoretical frameworks.
One was gender, as I only had access to interview female care managers. As the caring
and social care sector is heavily gendered, I regarded it as a necessary framework to
understand gender differences. A second framework is regional differences. The idea
came from the studies, which examined variations in the implementation of the LTCI
system by local authorities, especially with regard to the differences between rural and
urban areas (Campbell & Shimmei, 2010).
In the first half of the interview period, the recruiting process of prospective
interviewees was mainly theoretical sampling based on the following three criteria. The
first criterion, on which I have initially focused, was the different professional disciplines
that may constitute different concepts and understandings of care management.
Concretely, the central disciplinary difference employed for categorisation at this phase
was the distinction between the medical and social welfare professions.
In the second half of interview period, when I was engaged in writing an article on
urban rural differences on the LTCI implementation, the writing experience pushed me
to interview care managers in the rural area. Moreover, as I became aware that most of
the respondents were female care managers, the interviews with them suggested that
gender differences do have a role to play in their stories. I started to wonder how male
care managers construct their working experience.
Profiles of the interviewees
The interview situation is also an important factor explaining a context where the context
of interchanging views. All names of care managers appear in this text are pseudonyms
and some of the details are changed to protect the confidentiality of informants to
comply with the research protocol approved by the Institutional Ethics Review Board of
Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology.
During the course of the research, I interviewed 23 relevant parties. On September,
2008, where I made an appointment with Mrs. Okada in her 50s, who had been the
carer for her mother some time and was currently organising a support group for
carers, elderly and the disabled to help them arrange their own care. In November 2009,
I interviewed Mrs. Takahashi in her 60s and a user of LTCI who was suffering from
paralysis after a stroke that occurred in her early 50s. She had actively worked with
rehabilitation and although she still had major functional difficulties, she was trying
to enjoy her life by planning her care without care managers. Based on the interview
with Mrs. Okada, I started to develop my interview guides. These semi-structured
questions included: 1) What is care management? 2) What is the care management/ care
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Masaya Shimmei
manager’s role? 3) How do different professional backgrounds affect care management
processes? 4) How do different organisational characteristics affect the work of care
managers’ organisation and how do the organisational boundaries affect the work of
care managers?
In December 2008, I visited a for-profit service agency and interviewed Mrs. Harada,
director of the firm, aged approximately 60. She was also an acting care manager and
famous activist, fighting with the local municipal government on the issues of guidelines
for elder care. I interviewed her and learned how nurses regard community care and
care management and how the for-profit provider thinks about her task.
After the interview with Mrs. Harada, I visited an A-organisation, a non-profit
organisation in a suburb of the Kantô region, about one hour train ride from Tokyo.
It provides a wide range of elder care services including care management. The
A-organisation is located in historical residential district that is balanced by nature.
The group emerged after an ecological assessment activity met with strong local
demonstrations caused when NIMBY (not in my backyard) issues broke out in the
community in the 1980s. Now, the group is popular in the community and works very
closely with the municipal government. It is rare that the leader of the group is a man,
as most of the leaders in the social care fields are women. I interviewed Mr. Yamada
(79 years) and the leader of the group, as well as Mrs. Ito in her early 50s, care manager
with a certified social worker background who has had experience as a caseworker at
one local government in Tokyo after she graduated from university with a degree in
law. She had to quit her career as local municipal officer due to her husband’s transfer.
When she moved to a rural area of Japan, she tried to work in local administration there
because she had experience in working in local government but soon she had the bitter
experience that she was not appreciated at her new job with local authorities. She then
studied social welfare in a correspondence course and became a certified social worker.
After acquiring the certification, she started to work as a care manager in the group. I
spent two days at the site to learn about the daily work by care managers.
Several days after the interview, I interviewed another non-profit B-organisation in
Tokyo, which provides LTCI covered services. A housewife who participated in lifelong
learning courses organised by a municipality in Tokyo in the 1960s founded the group.
She organised 25 members in the community into self-help groups and published several
informational books to help the elderly better utilise services in 1993. I interviewed a
leader of the group Mrs. Ueda, in her 70s, as well as, Mrs. Sato (47 years), a senior care
manager with a nursing background.
In February 2010, I visited another non-profit organisation called a C-organisation
providing the LTCI covered services at the same prefecture as the A-organisation. The
C-organisation started its activity in a new town developed in the 1970s where human
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
71
contacts are rare in blocks of flats. The activity was started by 11 housewives in 1988
to develop a community where people could feel sense of safety. There, I interviewed
three care managers, with different profiles; Mrs. Ôhashi (49 years) is a nurse, Mrs.
Kosaka (58 years) and Mrs. Tajima (60 years) are all certified social workers. All had
experience abroad; they say the experience influenced their working as care managers
in the community. In March 2010, I visited the non-profit organisation D-organisation
located in western Japan, which provides LTCI services for Korean minorities in the
community. I interviewed executive director Mrs. Kitagawa and two care managers,
Mrs. Kaneda and Mrs. Kimura. Mrs. Kaneda (mid-50s) had worked as a care staff
in a day care centre operated by the D-organisation for long and later became a care
manager. Mrs. Kimura (mid-50s), on the other hand, worked as a home-helper in the
D-organisation and later became a care manager.
It was revealed that an important motivation to be involved in the caring business
was the issue of household. I interviewed a couple, Mr. and Mrs. Okayama (mid-30s),
both care managers used to be colleagues at a nursing home. The interview for Mr.
Okayama was carried out in November 2009 and March 2010 for Mrs. Okayama,
respectively. Another interview was conducted in November. I was introduced to Mr.
Inoue by one of my colleague who is also a researcher. Mr. Inoue (45 years) who held
a cynical expression backed by wide variety of working experience in both disability
and the elder care field, had resigned from working as care manager and studying at
graduate school in social work to become an instructor of care work.
Reflecting on the issue on clients’ participation in making care plans which is
allowed in the Japanese LTCI system, I went to interview a care manager, Mrs. Saito in
December 2009, who had been actively supporting clients to make their own care plans.
Mrs. Saito, an experienced certified social worker working in the elder care sector for
more than 30 years, was working at a research facility located at Kantô region at that
time and actively participating in a government committee as an appointed member.
She gave me a very informative picture of her perceptions on what had changed and
what had not changed before and after the LTCI system implementation. In December
2009, I interviewed Mrs. Kato, who used to be an activist in the community pushing
for citizen-led community development. I came to know her while I was observing a
regional LTCI planning committee meeting held by the same municipality located in
south-western Tokyo, where the B-organisation operates. She had a clear vision of how
to develop the welfare system under the LTCI system in which citizen participation had
to make great change in building an effective community care system. I called her office
and made an interview request during the same month.
I also visited a municipality in Northern Japan to meet care managers in a rural
area where quasi-public social welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin) are the
72
Masaya Shimmei
major providers. I met two male care managers, Mr. Kojima and Mr. Miyazawa. Mr.
Kojima (43 years) was working at a care management office, a parallel establishment
to an elder care institution operated by a social welfare foundation. Mr. Miyazawa (31
years) was also working for the social welfare foundation established by a municipal
government. I also interviewed one certified social worker, Ms Onoda (40 years), who
worked for a comprehensive support centre but had resigned from care work. Through
the conversation with Mr. Inoue and Ms Onoda, I started to locate care managers who
had left care industries, especially those with experience in working for profit making
providers.
In January 2010, I met a doctoral student, Mrs. Ômori, who had worked as a municipal
employer but resigned after her husband was transferred. In February, I interviewed Dr.
Machida (70 years) a medical doctor. The last interview was conducted in January 2013,
where I met and talked with a care manager, Mrs. Ishikawa (57 years), who was also a
carer of her mother with dementia.
Interview process
The interview time ranged from an hour to two hours on average, although I explained
to the respondents that it would last about 45 minutes to an hour. Before the actual
interview, I introduced myself, explained my research task and the ethical obligations
with which the research has to comply. A consent form approved by the Institutional
Review Board on Ethics was signed. All interviews agreed to be recorded. During
the interview, when respondent wanted to talk off-the-record, the recording was
immediately stopped.
I almost always used the same opening question used to start the interview. For
the care managers, the opening question was: ‘Please tell me your experience, how you
became involved in the elderly care sector?’ and to the users, I asked: ‘Please tell me
how you become a user of the LTCI system?’ Then the interview proceeded to ask about
detailed experiences in caring, the work environment, relationships with municipalities,
dilemmas and the interviewee’s perspectives on care management and overall opinion
of the LTCI system.
The emotional level of the interview should also be taken into account. Awareness of
my own attitude taken towards the attitudes of respondents was a challenge. Thanks to
basic qualitative research methods studied in advance, I was aware of the various effects
of interactive conversation with respondents on interpretation in theory. If an objective
attitude would be taken, I was afraid of failing to develop rapport with respondents,
which would end up with superficial answers, consequently failing to develop
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
73
meaningful narratives. While approaching respondents with emotional empathy,
there would be possibilities to have induced stories from respondents. Actualising
the dynamic relationship between interviewer and interviewee as a point to reflect on
narrative construction could solve the complex nature of interview methods.
The real difficulty was that as a researcher my implicit attitude to try to take an
objective approach to research subjects was so strong that I entered the field with the
assumption that I should not manipulate or induce the answers. The neutral attitude I
took caused difficulties in constructing stories by the interviewees. Often the answer to
the question was superficial in the sense that interviewees reacted self-consciously to
the interview. In the first interview, I had designed a semi-structured question schedule
as an interview guide and had rather fixed leading questions. The constructed form
of questions made it difficult to conduct the interviews without losing rapport with
interviewer and respondents.
Interviewing is a self-learning process. A change in my attitude towards interviewing
occurred during the first interview session. In the interview, I experienced several shifts
in the content of interest and the rise of different research questions. This experience
made me aware of the need for an attitude of openness and flexibility to conduct
the interview that reflects my emotional core occurred in the first interactions with
respondents. The interaction between interviewers and respondents can be regarded
as a restoration of subjectivity of respondents. As a result, follow-up questions were
elaborated on during the interviews through interaction (Kvale, 1996, p. 183).
This tacit desire to keep a distance from research subjects was soon altered to allow
a more dynamic approach to interviewing. To do this, I tried to find similarities in the
experiences of interviewees and myself; aspects that both interviewees and interviewer
could share in common. For example, the very basic focus was on the understanding
of ideal policy for the elderly. In this case, I started to tell about how I saw the policy
situation from the beginning. This type of self-disclosure could have jeopardised the
whole conversation. Instead of stating my own view, I gave examples of foreign countries’
policy situations and tried to make comparisons. Another experience I encountered
was that interviewees’ and my experience of living abroad made the interview process
easier because the common experience was somehow related to their understanding
of the work in which they were engaged. In addition, my experience of working with
the public sector helped to make a favourable atmosphere for further questioning of
their experience. What these experiences revealed was that some kind of transferable
experience is indispensable to deepen the empathy towards the collaborators’ story.
Thus, the experience of sharing emotions about one another’s experience was important
to allowing the interviewer to enter the lived experience of interviewees as collaborators
and the consequent success of developing the stories. When I recall the interview scenes,
74
Masaya Shimmei
there were certainly times I could not get into the life stories and felt lacking in locating
my experience with interviewees’ and failed to show empathy to them.
The mutual emotional influence is not regarded as contamination of the data as such.
This is because respondents’ stock of knowledge as the unspoken truth of a lived world
is regarded as a world of meaning, which is created through intersubjective construction
by the interviewer and respondents. In this regard, a constructive interview is coauthoring stories between interviewees and respondents, through emotional interaction
(Holstein & Gubrium, 1995, p. 29; Kvale, 1996, p. 183).
3.4.2 Describing narratives
Among 23 interviewees, conversations with 17 care managers were analysed in this
study (Table 3.4). After the interview, the recorded conversations were transcribed. I
transcribed all of the interview data and converted it to a textual form. Then, I checked
the content of the transcribed texts. I also counted a length of interview for all the
interview sessions but not by sentences to sentences. After this initial process, I used the
so-called thematic categorisation approach to clarify what the care mangers said. There
are different approaches to analyse interview data. Riessman (2002, p. 98) differentiates
the case-centred and category-cantered approach for analysing interview materials.
Quite often, narrative researchers start with a category-centred analysis to find
common or general patterns or categories in the interview texts. During the interview
process, I developed a rough framework from reading related publications. However,
soon after interview process had started, I became aware that a frame of analysis had
already emerged during the interview process. As usually occurs, it was necessary
to identify which parts of the interview pieces are relevant for an analysis. After the
first phase analysis was completed and it became necessary to explain differences in a
case-centred approach, narrative analysis has strength (Riessman, 1990). Through the
categorising approach I have tried to identify common and general themes among the
17 care managers. There were 611 sections categorised in the interview pieces and of
these, 80 narrative sections reflect care managers’ dilemma and ambivalence (Merton,
1976). I used MAXQDA version 11 for early data categorisation for coding themes.
I used this because as contents of interest quite often overlaps with the texts, which
makes the data management complex. Using CAQDAS (computer-assisted qualitative
data analysis software) was helpful to sort out and retrieve the data that is relevant for
further categorisation by organisational, professional and gender differences. I used
the software to seek out relationships between themes by cross tabulating narration
categories and themes.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
75
After this task, I decided to use the narrative segment concerning practice, and
the definition and role of the care managers. I looked at what was said about everyday
practices, and the definitions and roles of care management by care managers in more
detail. I sought to make sense of how care managers and the interviewer developed
the story of being care managers in Japan. Special attention is paid to the interaction
between identity construction and the narratives. The themes are largely selected by the
interviewer-researcher in the study but often times certain changes in themes initiated
by interviewee occurred.
In the next step, I started to see shifts or variations among the interviews by using
a narrative analysis to examine institutional and micro implementation relevance. I
used professional differences, organisational difference and personal work experience
as frameworks for analysis to reflect the contextual position of the narrative by using a
thematic approach to narrative analysis to uncover and categorise the experience of care
managers implementing LTC policy in Japan. This is because the approach focuses on
macro contexts, to ‘make connections between the life worlds depicted in the personal
narratives and larger social structures-power relations, hidden inequalities, and
historical contingencies’ (Cain, 1991, p. 76; Riessman, 2008). According to Cain (1991),
the method helps to identify storied themes that reveal a relationship with unconscious
concepts. Thematically analysed conversational data also helps to recognise basic stories
by care managers in each different level, in this study, cases. This quality of thematic
analysis of narrative helps to reveal the question of how to link the narrative embedded
in the history and culture.
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Masaya Shimmei
Table 3.4. Profiles of Care Managers used for the Analysis
Pseudonym
Sex
Age
Status*
profession
Affiliations
Type of
employment
Region
Harada
female
60's
CM
nurse
private company
full-time
urban
Inoue
male
40's
CM
care worker, social
worker
private company →
medical complex →
graduate student
resigned
urban
Ishikawa
female
50's
CM
care worker
private company
full-time
suburb
Ito
female
50's
CM
social worker, case
worker
municipality →
non-profit organization
full-time
urban
Kaneda
female
50's
CM
home-helper, care
worker
non-profit organization
full-time
urban
Kato
female
50's
CM
care worker
non-profit organization
part-time
suburb
Kimura
female
50's
CM
home-helper, care
worker
non-profit organization
full-time
urban
Kojima
male
40's
SCM
social worker
social welfare
foundation
full-time
rural
Kosaka
female
60's
CM
social worker
non-profit organization
part-time
urban
Miyazawa
male
30's
CM
social worker
social welfare
foundation
full-time
rural
Ôhashi
female
40's
CM
nurse
non-profit organization
part-time
suburb
Ômori
female
40's
CM
social worker
private company/
graduate student
part-time
urban
Okayama
female
30's
CM
social worker
social welfare
foundation →
municipality
part-time
suburb
Okayama
male
30's
CM
care worker, social
worker
private company →
medical foundation
full-time
suburb
Saito
female
40's
SCM
social worker
medical foundation/
university researcher
fixed-term
rural
Sato
female
40's
CM
nurse
non-profit organization
part-time
suburb
Tajima
female 60's
CM
social worker
non-profit
organization
part-time
suburb
*CM denotes for care manager and SCM for senior care manager
3.4.3
Analysing narrative: An example
To analyse narrative data, I have taken an eclectic approach to qualitative data analysis
(Coffey & Atkinson, 1996) because interpretations from data do not emerge simply from
qualitative data but from frameworks, which researchers develop by their theoretical
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
77
assumptions and knowledge. Here, I explain how I interpreted the narrative accounts
for the care managers in general by looking back how I carried out the interpretation
process in retrospect.
As stated earlier, I am assuming that the term ‘care management’ empirically
appears in several different domains. The success of linkage between the multiple roles
of care managers and institutional, functional and organisational levels of scrutiny
rests on how analysts can construct respondents’ stock of knowledge, which reflects
roles in certain domains (Gubrium & Holstein, 1997). These domains are set in three
frameworks. The first framework engages professional differences in the definition of
care management. It seeks to understand how the knowledge of different professionals
affects the sense making of care managers’ tasks. The second framework opens up the
different organisational settings of care managers. It seeks to evaluate the impact of the
quasi-market mechanism introduced in the LTCI system and street-level work delegated
to care managers. The third framework explores how ‘care management’ as a work is
narrated by each care manager. It intends to identify relationships of work and career
within the individual level.
To describe the narratives of care managers, I have adapted a ‘thematic analysis of
narrative’ (Riessman, 2008). The typical understanding of narrative is that it structures
‘a sequence of ordered events that are connected in a meaningful way for a particular
audience in order to make sense of the world or people’s experience in it’ (Hinchman &
Hinchman, 1997). Bell adds another quality to narrative, in which he stressed narrative
not only as an organised ‘plot’ in sequence but as something ‘organized temporally and
spatially’ which contains another ‘something’ beyond mere sequence (Bell, 2009, p. 8).
Thus the central task of narrative analysis is to find ‘the something’ by interpreting
an arrangement of events, that is ‘plot’ and people as ‘characters’ designed to elicit a
‘response’, a reaction from an audience (Paley & Eva, 2005, p. 89).
The narrative method answers to questions of how this account is generated. Why
the story told this way? What do the specific words that a participant uses carry from
prior uses? What other readings are possible, beyond what the narrator may have
intended? The thematic narrative analysis deals with ‘what’ is said in the given context by
‘keeping a story “intact” through theorising from the case rather than from component
themes (categories) across cases’ and ‘rejecting the idea of explanations (Riessman,
2002, pp. 53–74). The heart of the narrative analysis rests on the context. Riessman
(2008, p. 74) differentiates between thematic narrative analysis and a grounded theory
approach through the following four qualities. First, a thematic approach to narrative
analysis differs from grounded theory in that the former utilizes prior concepts and
theories. Second, a thematic narrative approach does not cut the data in pieces; it
preserves the story intact. Third, the thematic narrative analysis attends to the time
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Masaya Shimmei
and place of narration and as a consequence historicises narrative and avoids the idea
of generalisation. Finally, the thematic narrative approach is case centred whereas a
grounded theory approach aims to theorise across cases.
The method assumes that the form of the narrative follows the function of the
talk. Following four criteria are proposed by Bamberg to be met for the analysis of
the narrative. First, in what kind of story does narrators place themselves? Second,
how do interviewees position themselves to the audience, and vice versa? Third, how
do interviewees position characters in relation to one another, and in relation to
themselves? Finally, how do interviewees position themselves, that is, make identity
claims (Bamberg, 1997, p. 337)? In addition, narrative reproduces a cultural script. This
suggests that narratives are culturally defined and it is correct statements (Glassner &
Loughlin, 1990). Based on these assumptions, I used the theme of care management
definition to see how care managers develop narrative in certain way.
In the following, I show an example of how I have analysed narratives. What I
intend to do in this section is to show narrative analysis to exemplify how I utilised
the methodology described in the previous sections in the analysis. There is a special
emphasis on the co-productive aspect of interviews between care managers and me
through carefully examining the structure of stories as interaction and a description
of interpretation as my understanding of the story in terms of policy intention. When
reflecting on knowledge production and process of sense making, I also paid special
attention to words, terms, and metaphors.
To analyse what the care mangers said, I first categorised stories according to rather
broad themes. As a result of the initial thematic categorisation of the narrative sections
to detect definition and elements of care management, the following categories were
derived from the data. It is worth noting that these themes and categories correspond
with the interview method, which I gradually developed in the course of the interview
process. There are 611 total narrative sections used for categorisation. The thematic
categories derived were:
A) Definition and expertise of care management domain (208 narrative sections in
total) topics comprised from themes on care in general (10), needs (13), definition
of care management (18), clients (24), and expertise (143). These categories will be
discussed in Chapter 6 as task of care management.
B) Organisational domain (169) comprised from organisation issues in general (115),
administration (29), community comprehensive centre and role of public sector (7),
community care and area issues (18); later these categories will be addressed in
detail as organisational attribute and care management in Chapter 7.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
79
C)Working conditions, working environment and career development domain
(185) comprised from discretion (7), salary (11), task (75), and career development
(92); later addressed as care managers’ work in everyday life in Chapter 8.
D)Institutional domain (99) comprised from issues on LTCI system in general (24),
revisions and regularisation of the LTCI system (75).
E) Other issues (4).
To proceed towards detailed analysis of the data, I have selected the first three thematic
categorisations because these themes are essential components of the welfare mix policy
and reflected typical gender roles in Japan. In addition, they are the most prominent
themes in the data. These categories are expected to serve as foci for the further scrutiny
of the general features and variations in sense making among care managers.
In the following excerpt, I demonstrate how the care managers and I co-produced
the story of care managers’ everyday practice. The narrated content may include
unexpected personal feelings and even contradictory contents that sometimes arose
during the interview. What I want to emphasise is that the story emerged from the
interaction between the interviewer and interviewee, for which both parties were not
readily prepared. The stories sometimes contradicted one another. In fact, they do not
a merely describe their practices, rather care managers develop their own stories which
are resonant with expressions of ethical aspects in their own words. There are distinct
similarities and differences within their ethical talk.
Transcript 3 is a story of comparison between casework and care management from
an interview with Mrs. Ito, a former caseworker at one of local authorities in an urban
area.
80
Masaya Shimmei
Transcript 3. Comparison between casework and care management
[Origninal Japanese]
Ito: As a system of long-term care, I think care
managers are only responsible for care, by
definition. The care for the individual. You
know, focusing on things like how to provide
care. But in most cases, we end up having to
take care of everything. I mean, the life itself,
the whole life of the household. I often ask
myself, ‘Why would a care manager have to do
everything?’ But it happens to people who live
alone, of course, and the elderly households
too. Also, my impression is that many people
using services under the long-term care
insurance have family problems. So, if a family
has a great relationship and enough money, I
think that family can deal with care issues on
their own to a certain extent.
Interviewer: Yes, yes.
Ito: So, we do have some cases like that too, like, a
little help is enough. But in many cases, they
tend to have problems with the whole family,
and we end up taking them all. I would rush to
their place when they told me they fell or when
they couldn’t turn on the light. So, I’m no
different from a public assistance caseworker.
So, in reality, my guess is that jobs of public
assistance case workers have become a lot
easier, especially for the elderly households,
since care managers became available under
the long-term care insurance.
Interviewer: Yes.
Ito: It had been like that for the first few years. It
was like, the public officers were thinking
they could ask care managers for anything,
dumping everything. Eventually, we started
thinking, ‘We are not handypersons. Our job
is to make care plans.’ So, we started pushing
back gradually, or maybe I should say we have
come to our sense that we should do what we
are supposed to do. But until then, when I was
working like a public assistance caseworker, I
would run to the old people’s house even for
things like when they couldn’t turn on the
light.
Interviewer: That is true.
Ito: It was also like, you would clean the place
if it was dirty. Since everything is dumped
on care managers, things haven’t changed
much, I think. In that sense, public assistance
caseworkers are not that different from care
managers, in terms of what they do.
伊藤：介護保険の制度的にはケアマネジャーというの
は、介護、ケアだけの、に責任を持てばいいと思う
んですよ、考え方としては。その方個人の介護。ね、
どういうふうに介護してさしあげたらいいかってい
うことを中心に考えるんですけど。結局はもう丸抱
えの方が多いんですよね。生活、その、その世帯の
生活を丸抱え。ケアマネジャーなのに何でという、
よく思うんですけど、もう独居の生活の方はもちろ
んそうですし、高齢者世帯の方も。あと、あるいは
やっぱり、わたしの感じですけど、介護保険使われ
る方は結構、家族全体として問題を抱えている方、
結構多いような気がするんです。ですから、家族
が、も、もちろんすごく仲よくって、お金もあって、っ
ていうことであると何となく家族だけで介護がある
程度できるっていう感じがまだあるような気がする
んです。
聞き手：うんうんうん。
伊藤：ですので、結構、でも、ま、そういう方も。で、ちょ
っと手伝えばという方もいらっしゃるんですけど、
結構、家族全体に問題があるっていう方が結構多
いので、生活丸抱えになっちゃうんですよね。もう、
もう転んだといえば飛んでいき、電気が、電気がつ
かないといえば飛んでいきという感じなので、そう
すると生活保護のワーカーとあんまり変わんないん
ですよ。だから現実にですね、生活保護のワーカ
ーの方はですね、介護保険のケアマネジャーが付
いて、高齢者世帯の援助なんていうのはすごく楽に
なったと思いますよ。丸投げだと思いますね。　聞き手：はい。
伊藤：最初の何年かはそういう感じでしたね。もうとに
かく行政は何でもケアマネジャーさんに頼めばいい
じゃんっていう感じがあって、もうほんとに丸投げっ
ていう印象でしたね。そのうちにわたしたちも、な
ん、わたしたち何でも屋じゃないよっていう。ケアプ
ラン作るのが仕事だからっていうふうになって、こ
う、だんだん押し返してきた部分が。押し返してき
たっていうか、本来の仕事をやってちょうだいって
いうふうになってきたんですけど、それまでは、わた
しほんとに生活保護のワーカーやってたときは、お
年寄りのうちで電気が切れたといえば飛んでいき。
聞き手：そうですよね。
伊藤：汚いと言えば掃除し、みたいなところがあったん
ですけども、もうケアマネジャーに丸投げっていう
感じですので、あんまり変わらないと思いますね、
そういう意味では生活保護のワーカーもケアマネも
変わらない部分があると思いますね、やってること
は。
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
81
The analysis started already during the interview process. First, I undertook the analysis
according to my question. When an unexpected response was revealed, I constructed
a written note. Then after the transcription, I coded the content according to the topic
and thematised the story. After this coding process, to track myself back to the context
of the talk, I have looked at the structure of all narrative accounts, to make sense of
the context where the story is located. From the coded themes, I chose the themes of
narrative based on the categories of themes listed in pages 79 and 80. For example, the
above selected excerpt is one of the themes named ‘organisational effect to attribute of
care management’ categorized in B) Organisational domain, because the content of talk
is about comparison of her current job as care manger in one non-profit provider to her
experience as a caseworker at a local authority.
Identifying a structure
After selecting themes, I focused on how the narratives are structured and developed
between the interviewee and myself because the structure of narrative reveals a sense
making process of individuals in organisational settings (Weick, 1995). The structure
of narrative by Mrs. Ito is described as follows. 1) She posts normative functions in
social care market that care managers are responsible. 2) Then, in the second move,
she describes her work that care is an individual and personal issue, defined by the
law. 3) In the third move, she describes the actual situation to explain the attributes of
problems caused by the problem of household and family. 4) She gives an interpretation
of differences in (a) issues on familial problems related to financial aspects, (b) in terms
of quality of care that the family situation defines as the attributes of caring. 5) She
compares her experience of being a caseworker in a local authority. 6) She starts to
explain the change in her situation and attitude toward local government as she now
works in the private sector. 7) The speaker recapitulates the statutory role of care
mangers but the actual role is limitless. 8) She concludes her talk by stating that the role
of care managers is equal to the role of case managers, in essence.
Identifying terms and metaphors
In terms of language use in Japanese social welfare, I intend to see how care managers
effectively utilise linguistic resources to represent their work and their identities. This is
because language occupies central position to reflect the essence of policy learning. For
example, Takegawa (2006) points out that policy terms are likely to be borrowed from
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Masaya Shimmei
English using katakana because there is certain differences in nuance which cannot be
translated (pp. 42–43).
The Japanese writing system has three different ways to represent a single word.
Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: kanji, Chinese ideogram
used to represent both Chinese loanwords into Japanese and a number of native Japanese
morphemes; and two syllabaries: hiragana and katakana. Katakana is mostly used to
represent foreign words. In Japanese, most kanji have two different ways of pronouncing,
namely on-yomi and kun-yomi. On-yomi follows the original pronunciation of Chinese
while kun-yomi reflects the sound of Japanese translation of the given kanji. Kungo is
a word pronounced in kun-yomi and ongo is a word pronounced in on-yomi. Ishikawa
(2015) explains how kango (kanji), katakana and hiragana are used for different types
of words as follows: ‘Kanshi and Kannbun, written only in kanji, both in on-yomi and
kun-yomi, are used for political, ideological and abstract expressions while Waka and
Wabun are mainly for love, seasons, pictorial and concrete expressions’ and points out
‘Kungo poetry (established through Waka in a 5-7-5-7-7 metre) has great influence on
the prosody of Japanese. It is considered that it is the influence of kungo poetry that
many words in katakana have 3 metres or 4 meters in today’s Japanese’ (Ibid., pp. 24,
33–34). Waka is a type of poetry in classical Japanese literature, composed in Japanese
and kanshi is a poetry in Chinese. Wabun refers to sentences in Japanese on the contrast
to kanbun, sentences written in Chinese.
I also looked into metaphoric expressions reflecting ideas developed in conversational
analysis (CA) because the story is filled with a vivid use of metaphors (Lakoff and
Johnson, 2003). The utilisations of terms were not initially thought to be used in the
analysis but turned out to be very important source for interpretation of the narrative
accounts. In general, Mrs. Ito expressed an experience working for municipality as a
caseworker, but expressed a critical attitude towards a municipal role in the LTCI system
as a whole. The point of the story is that Mrs. Ito sees a similarity between caseworker
who works for the municipalities to handle poor relief programs and care manager who
works for the LTCI. She carefully chooses and juxtaposes number of terms, ‘care’, ‘longterm care (LTC)’ and ‘life or livelihood’ in comparison. The term ‘care’ has become a
popular imported term, written as ケア in katakana, pronounced kea. The ‘long-term
care (LTC)’ in the modern Japanese term is 介護 in kanji, pronounced kaigo. Finally, the
‘life or livelihood’ means 生活 in kanji, pronounced seikatsu.
Interestingly, the text reveals how Japanese had struggled with the notion of taking
care of elder relatives. In today’s Japan, they use an English word ‘care (kea)’ and recent
‘LTC (kaigo)’ in terms of nursing elderly. Prior to the introduction of the English term,
a Japanese term osewa (お世話) was widely used to refer to nursing. Nakamura (2013)
studied eldercare in Nepal and points out that the origin of osewa is found in a Buddhism
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
83
term sewa and it came to Japan when Buddhism was introduced to the country. This
suggests that a new concept comes together with philosophical ideas behind.
Apparently, Mrs. Ito differentiates between care/LTC/livelihood in broader sense. The
speakers’ understanding of care/LTC is associated with the difficulties of individuals
and life with family members. Care managers have to deal with informal care settings
and formal care provision. Negotiations between family carers and elders who need care
are the most difficult situation for care managers. As the LTCI evaluates an individual’s
ability to cope with a living situation, one of the important roles of care managers is to
balance the care need expressed by the family member and the needs that the elder has.
The narrative suggests that actual ability to cope with various actors providing care in
informal sector is essential elements of social work, family therapy and psychotherapy
but rarely taught in the curriculum of the care management.
Contextualising to the macro and mezzo level of the LTCI
Finally, I interpret these analyses in terms of policy domains, namely the characteristics
of LTC policy in Japan. To convey this process, I employ my capability of interpretation
as a researcher involved in knowledge production, trying to link the macro discoursein-practice to micro discursive-practice. Initially, the speaker’s statement starts with
the assertion that care managers are responsible only for the care recipient not the
family members as listed in the LTCI statute. This is called targeting and is considered
as minimal tasks listed in the LTCI Act representing bureaucratic statutory work. Then
she states that the reality of her practice is that care managers are often dealing with
the family matters of clients. This is considered to be the actual work of care managers,
and it is not done in bureaucratic way at all. Here, the services for family carers and
individual care recipients were distinguished and used in comparison.
What I realised from the structure and the content of the narrative is that the speaker
is having difficulties in limiting her job as a care manager. The way she sets a standard
for her current job is based on her former experience being a case manager at the local
authority. She cannot set the family issue aside and just concentrate on planning the care
designated by the LTCI statute. This ambivalence is strongly reflected in the structure of
the narrative. She first states the normative or actual role for what the care management
should be. She was eager to open up the argument that she cannot limit her work only
to deal with the legally defined role of the care managers. She then starts to compare
her role to her former experiences as a caseworker. In relation to the LTCI system as a
whole, I understand that ambiguity of the concept of care management has an impact on
interpreting the function by care managers. This ambiguity can be separated into two
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aspects. One ambiguity is the role of different actors in the system. Another ambiguity
lies in the realm of care management services. The ambiguous role of actors can be seen
in municipalities. The LTCI system permits different types of providers to work in the
system, yet the law defines municipalities as the insurer.
The overall analysis suggests a dilemma rooted in the sense making, in other words,
the internalisation of the value system incorporated in the LTCI. Care managers
somehow make sense of drawing lines between the multiple roles theorised in the
context of ideal care management and statutory care management. In addition, care
managers make sense of their act of drawing lines between clients with heavier chronic
conditions and more family oriented issues. The distinction of clients also relates to
non-medical professional care managers’ reluctance to relate themselves to medical
service settings or communicating with medical and health professionals.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
85
4 JAPAN’S SEARCH FOR A
MODEL OF ELDERCARE
Until recently, Japanese eldercare was extremely dependent on family care. The way of
producing care changed through the launch of the Long-Term Care Insurance Act or
system (kaigohoken-hô or Kaigohoken-seido, hereafter the LTCI) in 2000. In this system,
care recipients choose services from an array of for-profit and non-profit agencies, with
indirect local government oversight. The actual responsibility for planning necessary
care services for the elderly was assigned to care managers called kaigo-shien-senmonin.
In this chapter, I describe the history of eldercare after World War Two, when the
Japanese attempted to find a well-functioning policy for eldercare. My intention is to
explore how Japan chose the LTCI system as a solution and how decision makers saw the
role of care management and care managers in the totality of LTCI system.
4.1 Welfare Mix in Pre-War and Wartime Japan
Japan followed the path of industrialisation and modernisation by the Meiji restoration
(meiji-ishin), learning much of her legal and social systems from Germany, England and
France (Fujiwara, 2000; Ono, 2008; Saito, 2011). Regarding social issues, Japan faced the
problems of poverty, unemployment, public hygiene, and help for orphans during the
modernisation period. Throughout the pre-war period and wartime, social provision to
deal with the social issues was dependent on informal and public sectors comprised of
charity-based voluntary groups and families whereas the role of public provision was to
accommodate the family system through implementing civil administration in order
to reinforce central governmental control (Zhong, 1998). Before the World War II, both
policy learning from the western powers and the eclecticism (wakonyôsai), meaning
‘heart of Japan with technique of occident’, were regarded as a positive policymaking
style.
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4.1.1
Early years of welfare mix before 1945
Until recently, the Japanese eldercare was dependent on family care; the central role
of care for the elderly was regarded as a sacred family obligation defined through the
family system (ie seido) in which fatherhood, the head of family and parental power
was enshrined in the Meiji Constitution and the Civil Code of 1896 (Okamoto, 1993).
The central idea of the first modern public relief called the Relief Ordinance of 1874,
§162 (Jukkyû-kisoku, Dajôkan-tsûtatsu 162 gô) and which continued until 1929, was that
the public responsibility should reflect on a piety from merciful nation, rejecting the
idea of rights-based relief because it thought to develop lazy people (damin). Thus, it
was based on preventive approach to poverty (bôhin), emphasising familial mutual aid
(kazoku-sôjo) and neighbourhood support (rinpo-sôfu). The rationale for this familybased support system was based on the idea of the state as an organ (kokka yukitai
setsu) aimed to reinforce national identity by looking towards the Emperor as the
father (head) of the nation (Yoshida, 2004; Takahashi, 1995). The actual responsibility
for care was given to female family members, usually to first son’s wife called yome.
Thus, this ordinance restricted the public support for those who were evaluated as
helpless, dropped off from either self-care and familial/neighbourhood network. Elders
over 70, orphans aged under 13 and mentally developmentally disabled or physically
handicapped who lost their family and neighbouring network living in poverty were the
most prominent beneficiaries and were provided a very small amount of relief money for
50 days. Those who were eligible had to be in the family registry (koseki). Decisions were
made by the local administration officials (chihôkan) with strict oversight by the Home
Ministry (Yoshida, 2004, pp. 135–141; Takahashi, 1995, pp. 39–41). The public health
and medical service assistance to general public was non-existent until 1929 because the
Relief Ordinance only provided marginal support aimed to subsidise rice-purchasingfee meaning that it did not provide any medical services (Sugaya, 1977, pp. 18–19).
This first public poor relief system did not established any institutional facilities for
asylum seekers. The number of poorhouses grew though. One example is Tôkyô yôikuin,
which was developed in 1871 to hide the homeless people for the purpose of the visit of
Russian Prince Aleksei to Japan in 1872 (Tôkyôto Yôikuin, 1974). At the same time, oldage homes (Yôrô-in) were established by voluntary benefactors. The St. Hilda asylum
was said to be the first institution for the elderly started by an English evangelist, Ms
Elizabeth Thornestone (Koyano, 1979; cited in Kawabata, 2006). In 1912, a lower house
congressman Hashimoto Makoto submitted the Nourishing the Old Bill (Yôrô-hôan)
to provide small amount of payment to the poor elderly over 70 age of years to the
28th Imperial Diet. But the bill was withdrawn because the public support was thought
to encourage the dependency thus local and neighborhood support was thought to be
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
87
better (Yoshida, 2004, p. 204). In addition, a path-breaking bureaucrat Gotô Shimpei,
who studied the German social insurance system, submitted a health insurance bill
which was withdrawn in 1897.
During the end of Meiji, Taishô to early Shôwa era (1894 to 1923), Japan faced
number of social events which enlarged the social disparities among the general public
and presence of social problems (shakaimondai) become visible. First, the three wars
namely, the Japanese-Sino War (1894–95), the Japanese-Russo war (1904–5) and the
First World War (1914–18) required public relief for veterans. The aftermath of the
Japanese-Sino War required a measure to deal with the families of soldiers who lost
their lives during the war because the sheer number of recipients and expenditure of the
poor relief increased tremendously. To comply with needs for systematic relief system
for the military officers, the Japanese government introduced the Military Relief Act in
1917.
The encouragement of new industry policy (shokusankôgyô) demanded incentives
to attract workers to take part in heavy industries, mining and shipping. This policy
required social policy to function as a pillar to support the realisation of rapid
industrialisation to catch up to the great western powers. Public servants and workers
from large private firms were covered by mutual benefit associations. The Factory Law
was inaugurated in 1916 to ameliorate working conditions. It was later revised in 1923
to ratify the ILO (International Labour Organisation) conventions in 1919 (Takahashi,
1995, p. 44). An important turning point in health care policy came after the World War
One, when the first social insurance funded health system called the Law on Health
Insurance (Kenkô-hoken-hô) was enacted in 1922. Sugaya (1977) attributed this radical
reform to the activated labour movement and common awareness among general public
that sickness has a destructive effect on people’s life leading to poverty (p. 140–141).
During the 30 years of industrialisation process, the disparities among social strata
had widened. In order to reduce the relief expenditure, the government started to
reduce benefits in 1908 (Yoshida, 2004, p. 203). Along with tightening of the benefits,
the decline in economy and harvest failure enhanced social protest movements, such as
the Rice Riots (komesôdô) in 1918. The Great Kanto earthquake (1923) and later Great
Depression damaged the national economy and pupils’ daily living. Apparently, the old
Relief Ordinance became outdated and a new government intervention was strongly
demanded by the public; the old ordinance was thus replaced by the Relief Act (Kyûgohô) in 1929. The Act provisioned cash benefits in four areas; life, health, reproduction
and work (Sugaya, 1977, pp. 146–151). The act enlarged benefits and defined the role
of local authorities, but leaving the familial (kazoku-sôjo) and neighborhood support
(rinpo-sôfu) as the main source of the support (Yoshida, 2004; Sugaya, 1977; Takahashi,
1995). Also the level of the relief did not meet the minimum level of living.
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The welfare mix in the era exemplifies peculiar aspects of Japanese welfare provision.
As for the public sector, the government installed a relief section in local branches of
the central government office, which changed its name to the Department of Social
Affairs (shakaikyoku) in 1917. In 1920, the Department of Social Affairs became an
extra-ministerial bureau of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (Naimushô). Important
efforts were made to construct Japanese private charity sector. The activity was actively
learned from the London C.O.S (charity organization society), the Prussian Elberfeld
system and the Toynbee Hall Settlement. The early stage of relief based on goodwill
(jizen-kyûsai) was managed mainly by private charities developed by Buddhist temples,
Christian churches and philanthropists. Many of these charity movements were based
on freedom and the civil rights movement (jiyu-minnken-undô), enhanced voluntarism.
Protestant, nationalist or Buddhism ideas also backed up the movement aiming for
social reform (Yoshida, 2004, pp. 169–173). Yoshida lists five features of the development
of a Japanese charity movement (Ibid., p. 187). First, this early Meiji era development
of charity in Japan was characterised by its paternalistic feature which the bureaucrats
took the role of relief. Second, as Japanese labour movement was suppressed by the
government, charity did not mature to realise the socialisation of the movement and
was considered to substitute cheap labour for wage earners who were already poor.
Third, the Japanese public relief policy reflects stigma, which made relief work heavily
dependent on private charity organisations thus making it difficult to develop systematic
activities. Fourth, the idea of philanthropy did not become popular among the bourgeois
in Japan. Fifth, the separation of private and public were not clearly understood by the
charity organisations, especially by the Buddhists, thus making different welfare mix
developments.
When the Japanese government promulgated the Reformatory Law (Kanka-hô)
in 1902 and consequent revision in 1908, the goodwill and help through piety to the
poor was replaced by idea of social work (shakai-jigyô) which was regarded to reflect
needed social aspects to tackle poverty (Takahashi, 1995, p. 48). The most important
element of social work at that time was called reformatory education (kanka) for
delinquent juvenile through public and private reformatory institutions (kanka-in).
During this period, many semi-public and semi-private intermediate organisations
(hankan-hanmin no chûkan-dantai) developed to carry out social work because, it was
no longer possible to provide sufficient support from a top-down hierarchy, therefore,
intermediate organisations to support the public were required (Yoshida, 2004, p. 209).
In 1908, when the nationwide seminar was held to spread the idea to people who are
interested in reformatory work, the Central Association of Charity (Chuo-jizen-kyôkai)
was established and later altered the name to the Central Association of Social Work
(Chuô-shakaijigyô-kyôkai) in 1921.
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To carry out the reformatory program and social work (shakai-jigyô), the district
commissioner system (hômen-îin seido) developed in 1918 and played a vital role. Before
the system was considered as the national program, the prototype of the system was called
rescue commissioner (saisei-komon-iîn) introduced in the Okayama prefecture learned
from the German system implemented at the Elberfeld city. Actual work was carried
out by an appointee called the district commissioner (hômen-îin) with administrative
competence (sochi-seido or gyôsei-sochi). A hallmark of this system was that the district
commissioners served as local officials on a voluntary basis meaning without salaries and
given strong discretionary powers. The basic objective of the system was to carry out the
Poor Relief Act and enlighten citizens (kanka) through interaction with commissioners
and have them serve the Emperor, as idling in poverty was regarded as an act against the
Imperial system (Yoshida, 2004, pp. 231–232; Takahashi, 1995, pp. 50–51).
When military proceeded to occupy Manchuria in 1931, the social systems started to
alter its nature from peacetime social control to warfare governance. The social policy,
social work and health policies reflected the totalitarian ideas that prevailed from 1930s
until Japan’s defeat in the Pacific War in 1945. One specific piece of legislation that
reveals this was the enactment of the Law for National Mobilisation (Kokka-sôdôinhô) in 1938. Another example is that the military demanded to install the Ministry of
Health and Welfare (Kôseishô) in 1938 to improve the physical conditions of nationals
by promoting hygiene in order to draft healthy young soldiers. In terms of social work,
embryonic shakai-jigyô (social work) was altered to kôsei-jigyô (the welfare work) in the
very same year. It still preserved the idea of familial and neighbourhood mutual aid but
an important part of it was that greater emphasis was paid to a population approach to
carry out the war. Also in 1938, the Social Work Act (Shakaijigyô-hô) was introduced as
wartime legislation, which formed first registry to locate social work as a part of national
policy, concretely intended to provide subsidies, though still a small amount, to private
charity organisations. There were also a number of progressive in social legislation
enacted during the wartime Japan; for example, the Law of Protection of Mothers
and Children (Boshi-hogo-hô), the Law on Medical Protection (Iryô-hogo-hô) in 1941
(Takahashi, 1995, p. 55). Workers’ Pension (Rôdô-nenkin-hoken) of 1942 renamed as
Labour Pension (Kôsei-nenkin-hoken). National Health Insurance broadened the realm
of benefits in 1942. The actual implementation of the welfare work (kôsei-jigyô) was
carried out by public and private institutions, community organisations and district
commissioners.
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4.1.2
Welfare provision at occupation period
Wartime Japanese social policy changed after Japan’s defeat in the Pacific War to the
US. In the aftermath of World War Two, poverty among the Japanese became a most
serious problem. At that time, the General Headquarters for the Supreme Commander
of the Allied Powers (GHQ) was regarded as the central actor in introducing various
social reforms. Part of the so-called occupation reform included the modernisation
and establishment of a systematic welfare administration for stabilising the basis of
government (Murakami, 1987; Suganuma, 2005; Takahashi, 1995). The actual policy
implemented by the GHQ was stated in the Supreme Command for Allied Powers
Instruction Note (SCAPIN 775), in which public assistance and institutional custody
were at the centre of the welfare program.
During the occupation period, the old Public Assistance Act of 1947 (Seikatsu hogohô), the Child Welfare Act (Act No. 164 of December 12, 1947; Jidô-fukushi-hô), and the
Act on Welfare of Physically Disabled Persons (Act No. 283 of 1949; Shintai-shôgaisha
fukushi-hô), the so-called three basic welfare laws (Fukushi-sanpô) and the Social
Welfare Act (Act No. 45 of March 29, 1951) were enacted. This welfare legislation formed
the basic foundation of Japanese welfare administration. The Public Assistance Act was
later reformed into a new Public Assistance Act (Act No. 144 of May 4, 1950). Kawai
Yukio (1979) has described the situation as ‘(a)ll these are regarded as a part of the postwar arrangement (sengo-shori), the three basic welfare laws were in essence converged
into the Public Assistance Act as the general measure for poverty’, for those who were
in poverty or with no relatives available, those people were mainly covered through
income assistance by the Public Assistance Act and asylum protection policy (p. 171).
In regard to the human resources for social work, the Public Health and Welfare
Section of the GHQ acknowledged the importance of educating qualified social workers
as early as 1945, before SCPAIN 775. Suganuma (2005) found out that two opposed views
existed in the occupational period to educate and recruit the personnel who practice
social work (pp. 57, 65, 99–104, 162–163, 229). One was the view to introduce a systematic
education system to enrich social workers with competence. Members of the group
who supported this direction were mostly members of the American Public Welfare
Association (APWA). They regarded the administration of social welfare in Japan as poor
and in need of systematic administration and personnel to run the system. The other
view was proposed by the GHQ, which favoured the old district commissioner system
developed in the pre-war period carried out by an honorary appointee and voluntary
personnel. The objective was to separate the state and private social welfare organisations
because the GHQ was concerned about the relationship between the military state and
private social welfare organisations mobilised to reinforce the military governance
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during the war period. As a result, the district commissioner system continued under
a new name of the local welfare commissioner system (minsei-îin seido) and the local
welfare commissioner (minsei-îin) was appointed as a caseworker to run the Old Public
Assistance Act of 1945. But the GHQ started to consider a scientific and modern public
implementation structure for the poor relief system. Recognition of the need for the
professional social workers became strong within the GHQ and the Ministry of Health
and Welfare when the problem of implementation, namely disparities in the evaluation
of eligibility and the lack of a systematic recording system caused by unprofessionalism
and unevenness in the quality of the local welfare commissioners became salient.
As a consequence of the policy change, the pre-war social welfare system was
reorganized with public administrative bodies. The Public Assistance Act (Seikatsuhogohô, Act No. 144 of May 4, 1950) installed the municipal welfare office (fukushi-jimusho)
to convey public relief and assigned public servants as caseworkers (shakaifukushi-shuji)
(Ibid., pp. 229, 231–236). Consecutively, the Social Welfare Act (Shakaijigyôhô, Act No.
45 of March 29, 1951) defined social welfare provision to be arranged by public and
quasi-public entities. The operation of social welfare programs were delegated to strongly
controlled non-public body called the social welfare corporation (shakaifukushi-hôjin)
(Yoshida, 2004, pp. 297–298; Takahashi, 1995, pp. 75–78). In addition, the Ministry of
Health and Welfare reorganised pre-war private philanthropic organisations dealing
with community work into a non-public but quasi-public organisation with strong
local government oversight called Councils of Social Welfare (shakai-fukushi-kyôgikai)
to comply with strong GHQ order to dissolve community based organisations which
supported military Japan.
With regard to support for elders, although the preparation of the modern social
welfare system started to develop, most of the elders who had relatives were cared for by
their family members.
4.2 Evolution of LTC Provision for the Elderly
The 1956 Economic White Paper declared ‘the end of the post-war period’. The majority
of the Japanese population enjoyed the fruits of rapid growth in the economy; starting
from the Jinmu boom of 1955 and a wage increase throughout a wide range of the labour
force. Accompanied with the optimism backed up by economic boom, the growing
welfare ideology commenced to realise a universal welfare state.
The late 1960s witnessed a boom in social policy. In terms of social security
development, full coverage of social security became a reality through the enactment of
the National Pension Act (Act No. 141 of 1959) and the National Health Insurance Act
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(Act No. 192 of December 27, 1958). In addition to the three basic welfare law mentioned
above, the Act on Welfare of Mentally Retarded Persons (Act No. 37 of 1960), the Act
on Social Welfare for the Elderly (Act No. 133 of July 11, 1963), and the Act on Welfare
of Mothers with Dependents and Widows (Act No. 129 of 1964) became a new legal
framework of Japanese social welfare, often referred as the six-welfare-law framework
(fukushi-roppô-taisei).
In 1962, the Advisory Council on Social Security (shakaihoshô-seido-shingikai) issued
a recommendation, the verdict on the basic principles of the social security system and
recommendation of the advancement of social security system (shakaihoshôseido no
sôgôchôsei ni kansuru kihonhôshin ni tsuite no tôshin oyobi shakaihoshôdeisdo no suishin
ni kansuru kankoku; rokujyû-ni-nen kankoku) stating that improved living standards
required the aim of social welfare to be changed from poor relief to poverty prevention
(Miura, 1985, pp. 26–27). The conceptual transition in the social welfare system redefined
the roles between the social welfare and social security. The social security system took
on the role of covering the labour force and general income populations whereas social
welfare policy was targeted at the population in the so-called ‘borderline strata (bôdâ
rain sô)’ which had not quite lapsed into poverty (Mori, 2008, pp. 20–22).
When the period of high economic growth came, however, the situation of the elderly
did not change. According to Takahashi (1995), the disparity in social development
symbolised by the National Income-Doubling Plan (shotoku baizô keikaku) of 1960
became visible as a distortion (hizumi) witnessed in areas such as pollution and health
issues. National policies that solely focused on success and a heavy reliance on growth in
the economy paradoxically helped to develop positive attitudes towards welfare policy
among the public (Ibid., pp. 105–109). Such an initiative started to influence the active
role of local government in the area of proactive policy to tackle with environmental
pollution (Reed, 1979).
Part of the distortion was reported in the 1956 White Paper on Health and Welfare.
The paper pointed out the existence of economically deprived low-income populations
and groups. Other than single mother families and the disabled who lacked the ability
to work, the elderly were regarded as a group that could not reap the direct benefits of
economic growth and was seen as a group needing special policy attention (Mori, 2008,
p. 18; Takahashi, 1995, p. 99).
Accompanied with dysfunction of the traditional family support system and the lack
of active government support available to those already in old age, anxiety about living
standards became an issue for the elderly (Campbell, 1992; Mori, 2008; Okamoto, 1993).
The main reason why the elderly were situated in this position was that although the
elderly were entitled to a minimal pension, called the old age pension (Rôrei-nenkin), the
pension level had been too low to appropriately maintain a household. To supplement
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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the small amount of the pension, many elderly were forced to find work but found that
fewer employment opportunities were available compared to the young healthy labour
population. Regardless of the advancement in social security through the introduction
of the pension system in 1959, the main target population was the active labour force
contributing the economic boom, not the elderly who had already ceased labour market
participation (Campbell, 1992, p. 105). Another reason for vulnerable elderly was that a
decline in family support was caused by rapid changes in household patterns (Okamoto,
1993, pp. 46–52).
Before the introduction of the LTCI system, Japanese public welfare provision was
characterised by less developed community care services shaped by poorly funded
institutional facilities (Ôta, 2005a, pp. 9–10). Moreover, welfare facilities were marked
by the tradition of poor relief. In order to comply with the more universal demand
for LTC from the public, these factors partly induced a heavy reliance on medical care
facilities. Aside from the heavy reliance on medical institutions, welfare provisions
were developed to strengthen the strict control of the government. For example, the
social welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin) were the main operators of welfare
institutions, yet remained under the strict supervision of the Ministry (Miura, 1992,
pp. 131–132). Welfare facilities aimed at providing care services to suit the needs of LTC
were called ‘special elderly nursing homes’. Special elderly nursing homes (tokubetsuyôgo-rôjin-hômu) were established to provide care for the residents of custodial facilities
(yôgo-rôjin-hômu), so as to deal with the prevalence of frailty among residents. The
operation of these institutions was almost completely monopolised by the social welfare
corporations using their own cash flow and cash subsidies from the state to build and
to run the facilities. Later, the method of giving a subsidy to build facilities came under
strong criticism because the method was widely regarded as a notorious hotbed of
corrupt practices: a famous bribery case concerning the administrative vice minister
of the Ministry of Health and Welfare had widened the scepticism. This vice minister
was regarded as a key bureaucrat who had contributed to the development of the LTCI
system (Asahi Shimbun, 1996, December 5).
Although relatively small numbers of municipalities played a central role in developing
and providing community care services, their responsibility was fundamentally
important. Mostly evaluation and all intake processes were mandated as agency
functions (kikan-inin-jimu). Under the restricted fiscal policy after the administrative
reform, reduced amount of subsidies posed an impediment to fulfil latent needs for
residential care. The unmet need for LTC and institutional services was absorbed by
medical facilities and costs were covered by the medical insurance scheme after the
introduction of the free medical policy in 1972. This turn was regarded as a critical
juncture as the LTC policy in Japan moved into close alliance with medical policy.
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Free medical fee for elderly
In the late 1960s the bureaucrats of the Ministry of Health and Welfare started to
realise that future elderly care must shift from poor relief to more universal and flexible
arrangements. Among the social problems prominent in the elderly of that time, was
the severe housing shortage (Campbell, 1992, p. 19). To secure housing for low income
elderly without family support, institutions called low-fee old age homes (keihi-rôjinhômu) were introduced in 1961. These homes gradually became incompatible with basic
needs of the elderly for two reasons. One reason was that as tenants became increasingly
older and frail, there was a need to ease the burden of the staff working in the homes.
Secondly, as means test was required to become a tenant in the low-fee old age homes,
greater demands to be included in the residential services were expressed by elderly who
did not pass the test. To meet these social demands, a special nursing home (tokubetsuyôgo-rôjin-hômu) began to provide care for the frail elderly. As many faced diminished
abilities to participate in the activities of daily living and there were increased demands
for institutions with care, a need grew to shift existing elderly policy towards a more
universalistic basis in order to cover the elderly population with some kind of need for
social care.
In 1963, the Act on Social Welfare for the Elderly (Rôjin-fukushi-hô) came into
force. Its preamble states that it is the government’s responsibility to enhance the welfare
of the elderly. The basic idea in the law was to standardise various institutions providing
care for the elderly as implemented by the local and the central government; to coalesce
the regulation for institutions and institutionalise home help services carried out in
municipalities, establish elderly welfare centres, provide health check-ups annually and
to carry out a separation of roles between the municipality and central government.
Other than the administrative change, one prominent aspect of the law was the
introduction of a so-called social service strategy, aimed at developing social service
programs in the community (Campbell, 1992; Okamoto, 1993). Interestingly, the social
service program developed according to the law was forced to cope with various strata
of the elderly population.
The significance of the Act was not only in establishing a new age-based public policy
but also in combining medical and welfare services partly under the aegis of age-based
policy. A prominent issue for the elderly at that time was access to medical care. By the
end of the 1960s, when national policy did not focus on easing access to medical service
by the elderly, an experience of Sawauchi village, a small municipality located at Iwate
prefecture in northern Japan, drew attention of the public. The mayor of Sawauchi village
decided to provide a subsidy for the elderly to cover all co-payments for health insurance.
The local policy virtually created free medical care access for the elderly (Maeda, 1983).
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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This radical policy ameliorated the health conditions of the elderly and the experience
was widely disseminated by national media. Similar policy to compensate co-payment
was adapted by the Tokyo metropolitan government in October 1969. The policy
virtually opened up free medical access to the elderly living in the Tokyo metropolis.
This local policy in the Tokyo metropolis had a significant impact on national policy.
Ikegami and Campbell (1996) state that the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)
could not ignore the impact of the policy and while there were no apparent supporters
of free medical access for the elderly among the bureaucrats of Ministry of Health and
Welfare, the policy for providing medical subsidies was introduced nationally in 1973
by amending the Act on Social Welfare for the Elderly. The idea of social service strategy
was taken to provide a subsidy to cover co-payments. This method was taken to avoid
drastic medical policy reform because it was a reasonable way to appeal the ruling party,
reflecting the Ministry’s ability to cope with the issue. The system was quite useful to
municipalities as well. The subsidy allowed local officials to hospitalise elder residents
who not only had medical but also social and family problems. As a result, the concept
of eldercare in Japan called kaigo started to conflate medical care issues with social care
as a political issue and the border between social and medical care policies began to blur
(Mori, 2008).
The so-called free-medical fee policy increased the supply of medical care for the
aged resulting in what was called the hospitalisation of social problems (shakaiteki
nyûin) and a rapid increase of elderly health care expenditure. As most of the elderly
were covered by the regional National Health Insurance system (Kokumin-kenkôhoken), the increased use of medical care by the elderly raised the central government’s
financial burden because half of the regional health insurance system was financed by
the national budget (Innami, 2009, pp. 3–9). Five years after the introduction of the 1972
free medical care provision, the Ministry of Health and Welfare failed to introduce a copayment and means test because of political opposition. Even though Japanese medical
policy was not the target of radical reform, the Ministry of Health and Welfare regarded
the administrative reform and budgetary constraints as a chance to develop a scheme to
introduce medical reform (Campbell, 1992, pp. 285–288).
As a result of the reform, the Health Care Act for the Aged (Rôjin-hoken-hô; Act No.
80 of 1st August, 1982) was inaugurated in 1982. The reform re-introduced co-payment
by elderly patients. It also created a new institutional facility called health care facilities
for the elderly (rôjin-hoken-shisetsu) with a bundled payment. The rationale behind the
termination of free medical care policy for the elderly was the introduction of free health
check-ups for the middle aged population and elderly, and to provide new preventive
services in order to decrease lifestyle-related diseases, or so-called adult-onset disease
(seijin-byô), that was regarded to cause high medical expenditure (OECD, 2013). Since
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then, the policy response to elderly issues in Japan has been linked with gradual medical
care reform. Along with the welfare reform imposed by financial crisis, the introduction
of two institutions, namely designated hospitals for the elderly (rôjin-byôin) and health
care facilities for the elderly (rôjin-hoken-shisetsu) by the Health Care Act for the Aged
induced the critical turning point of the medicalisation of eldercare (Mori, 2008, pp.
43–44). Other than preventive services, a fund contributed by each medical insurer
(employees’ insurance) to support the national health insurance system was established
to cover medical cost of the elderly.
The Gold Plan
After the enactment of the Health Care Act for the Aged in 1982, the government
established a nationally certified social worker and care worker profession, through
the Certified Social Workers and Certified Care Workers Act (Act No. 30 of 1987) in
1987. Then, the government proposed so called the Gold Plan (Gôrudo-puran), the TenYear Strategy on Health and Welfare for the Aged (Kôreisha-hoken-fukushi-suishinjukkanen-senryaku) in 1989. The plan was widely regarded as a major policy change with
comprehensive and large-scale planning and required large sum of budgetary backup.
The plan stated the actual quantity of elderly care provision and assumed its’ financial
security through the prospective introduction of a consumption tax. The amount of the
eldercare provision planned was; increasing the number of home-helpers up to 100,000,
short-stay to 50,000 beds, day-service centres up to 10,000 places. It also provisioned
newly installed community care centres to 10,000 places, nursing homes up to 240,000
beds, health care facility for the elderly 280,000 beds and the care house availability
to 100,000 clients. The implementation of the Gold Plan bound local governments to
settle community-based services. Although several trial programs helped to develop
and study various community based and homebound services in Japan, the efforts to
develop such services by local governments’ initiatives widely varied and ended up with
small-scale success (Campbell, 1992, pp. 245–247).
During the 1980s, the administrative reform and stringent fiscal policy precluded
ministries from introducing a major policy; there were no radical policy options available
because of budgetary constraints. One example is the so-called Plan for the Longevity
Society issued by the Economic Planning Agency (EPA) National Life Deliberation
Commission in May 1986. The plan was nonetheless lacking in substance since had
little budgetary support (Ibid., p. 242). Even though the Ministry of Health and Welfare
sought the opportunity to increase their organisational authority, the emergence of such
a plan in the era of austerity needs explanation. One of the explanations, was that the
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Gold Plan was not merely a governmental response to an ageing society but the product
of a more complex political agenda, namely tax hike politics and the organisational
interests (Ibid.). As the introduction of the consumption tax had failed twice before the
Takeshita cabinet, the Ministry of Finance sought a way to increase tax income and
the Ministry of Health and Welfare wanted to expand their authority as the ageing of
society became the policy agenda. The common objectives of two ministries enabled the
welfare of the aged section of the Ministry of Health and Welfare to take ageing society
(kôreika-shakai) as a chance to expand their interests and developed policy ideas for
eldercare by organising various informal and formal study groups to reform the LTC
policy and issued number of important reports. Two reports are the most important:
A Recommendation of the New Tangent of Government Administration of Medical
Affairs in Changing Era (January 1988, a study group of the Ministry of Health and
Welfare) and The Basic Idea and Objective to Realise Longevity and Welfare Society
(Vision for Welfare), (October 1988, Ministry of Health and Welfare; Ministry of
Labour) which described the direction of ministries’ interests. The recommendation
described the introduction of a social insurance system to support community care.
The vision also stated that the utilisation of private sector was necessary to acquire care
provision. A section in the Ministry of Health and Welfare called the ‘silver service
promotion instruction’ was installed in 1985 to cope with the privatisation of welfare,
initiated by the Second Temporary Commission on Administrative Reform (Rinchô)
(Campbell, 1992, p. 234).
4.3 Administrative Reform and New Direction to Develop the LTC
The 1973 oil crisis and the failure to introduce the 1979 consumption tax brought
financial difficulties and a more politicised atmosphere seeking to alter the public
sector. The Second Temporary Commission on Administrative Reform (Dai ni rinchô)
was created and the Ministry of Finance started to restrict administrative increases in
almost every national budget. In the late 1980s, a strong pressure for administrative
reform by the Second Temporary Commission on Administrative Reform enforced a
series of administrative reforms. These reforms were intended to change the relationship
between the central and local government through the amount of financial support
for discretionary funds to local governments (Campbell, 1992, pp. 221–234; Takahashi,
1995, pp. 192–203).
After World War II, the Japanese local governments received a great deal of autonomy
backed up by the Constitution. In pre-war Japan, the autonomy of local governments
was limited and remained under the strong governmental supervision. The local
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government in Japan consists of two levels. One is prefecture, (ken) and the other is
municipality, (kisojichitai), comprised from city (shi), village (son) and special ward
(tokubetsu-ku) in Tokyo metropolis. The following four major activities explain the
role of Japanese local government: it implements the law, it has a role as co-sponsoring
ordinances which is written forms of regulations formed by local governments. It also
serves as both a regulator and benefit provider. In order to realise these four activities, the
so-called three basic rights for the self-government (Jichi-sanken) have been developed.
The three basic rights are the power to co-sponsor an ordinance, administrative power
and the financial power of self-government. A common critique is that the autonomy
of Japanese local government is restricted and its main function is the enforcement
of functions delegated to agencies. Each local government has to set up an assembly
consisting of members selected by election. In contrast to the parliamentary system for
the Diet, the mayors of municipalities and governors of prefectures are elected by the
presidential system introduced by the GHQ. The number of prefectures is 47, whereas
municipalities and wards were cut in half by the Sweeping Amalgamation of Heisei
(Heisei no dai-gappei) to make a total of 1,798 in 2009. The prefecture is positioned as
superior to municipalities and a prefecture will undertake an intermediary role between
the central government and the municipalities with the exception of designated cities
(seirei-shitei-toshi).
In terms of social welfare, the admission decision to institutional facilities was defined
as an agency-delegated function. Basically, the Ministry’s delegation to prefectural
government with 80% of cost is covered by the central government and 20% by the
prefectural government. If municipalities install the welfare office (fukushi-jimusho),
role and finance delegated by the prefectural governments to municipalities had to cover
20% of the cost, instead of the prefectural government. As for community-based care
provision, the municipal government has a responsibility and the central, prefectural
and municipal governments cover one-third of the cost respectively.
However, in 1986, the central government changed social welfare legislation to
decentralise administrative responsibilities to local municipalities, including welfare
administrative tasks relating to social welfare by the Act to rationalise administrative
delegation (Kikan-inin-jimu-seiri-gôrika-hô, Act no. 109, 1986). The reform of the
agency-delegated function in the social welfare administration was to rationalise
and rearrange the responsibility of the national government. Accordingly, the Social
Welfare Act was radically reformed in 2000. This reform was later called, the Reform
of the Fundamental Structure of Social Welfare (Shakaifukushi-kisokôzô-kaikaku),
abandoning the administrative disposition system (sochiseido) to encourage the right
to use the services by clients. This introduced the idea of a ‘contract’ for service use and
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encouraged the vitality of private sector. The reform also introduced the principle of
ability to pay (MHW, 1998; 1999).
Debated role of the local authorities
These reforms not only increased the cost burden of performing local welfare
administrative functions but also the subjective actions and responsibilities by allowing
the direct discretionary power of the mayor of the municipal governments. In terms of
administration, the licensing of the social welfare corporation that used to be the main
supplier of the social welfare services was completely delegated to the governor of the
prefectural government. The role of admission to institutional facilities was delegated
to be the function of the municipal government. For example, the proportion of cost
burden of both institutional and community based services changed with the burden by
the central government at 50% and the prefectural and the municipal governments 25%.
The reform also required that prefectural and municipal governments draw up a Health
and Welfare Plan for the Elderly (rôjin-hoken-fukushi-keikaku) by 1993 (Tsujiyama,
1992).
Social welfare policy reforms were also activated by different views and opinions
among scholars. Although the majority of social welfare scholars supported the idea
of tax-based model with administrative discretion as progress toward universalism, a
number of scholars criticised the administrative disposition system funded by taxes
because it limited the choice of clients and induced stigma. From the local government
administration’s point of view, the discretion delegated by the state limited the active
role played by the municipal government. The different perspectives on welfare
administration were posed between social welfare and administration academics
because welfare administration in Japan has long been criticised for its inflexibility
and undemocratic nature. As a result, both administrative disposition system and
administrative delegation has been put on the agenda of debate (Furukawa, 1997, p. 153;
Ôkuma, 2010; Shindô, 1996).
For the theoretical backup for a future LTC reform, Miura Fumio, an influential
social policy scholar, served in an important role to introduce management view in
social welfare policy. Miura (1992) stressed that the social welfare reform would have
to consider the balance of responsibility between the public and private in a mixed
welfare system (pp. 219–238). As early as in 1970s, Miura introduced the idea called
‘social welfare management (shakaifukushi-keiei)’ based the notion of needs-led social
welfare intervention. Based on a distinction between needs as ‘needs dealt with cash
(kâheiteki-nîds)’ and ‘needs dealt not by cash (hikâheiteki-nîds)’, Miura (1985) suggested
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that social services would have to actualise ‘self-dependency (jirittsu)’ of clients (p. 55).
Miura also suggested that in order to implement the needs-led intervention, particularly
‘needs dealt not by cash (hikâheiteki-nîds)’ should share more importance in the future
social welfare.
4.4 Increasing Demand for Comprehensive LTC
Based on the Health and Welfare Plan for Elderly (rôjin-hoken-fukushi-keikaku) prepared
by the prefectural and municipal government, the Ministry reviewed the Gold Plan in
1994 as the New Gold Plan (shin-gôrudo-puran). The new plan increased the quantity of
provision to be prepared and included new services, such as a visiting nursing service
to increase community-based service provisions. The revised plan stated the quantity of
elderly care provision, increasing home-helpers, home-helper stations, short-stay beds,
day service centres, community care centres, nursing homes, health care facilities for
the elderly (half-way houses) beds, and care houses. The revised plan also set the targets
of manpower of care workers, nurses, occupational therapists and physical therapists
(MHLW, 2009, p. 143).
From the late 1980s, a number of bureaucrats in the Ministry of Health and Welfare
organised various study groups, including influential study groups (Kaigo puran
kenkyûkai and Kôseishô seisaku bijon kenkyû-kai). The idea of a ‘new long-term care
system’ was directed by the discussions of these groups. The content of the new policy
idea was to abolish social services based on administrative directive system (sochiseido)
and introduce a free-choice social service scheme based on social insurance with
share of tax. Moreover, the introduction of a care management system for promoting
independent living at home was noted. It is interesting to note how the members of the
Project Team on Elderly Care (kôreisha-kaigo-ni-kansuru-purojekutochîmu) stated that
medicine could be divided into medical technology and life related services. Medical
technology does not fit into free choice and requires public attention to be situated
within a publicly financed security system. On the other hand, life related services suit
user choice through the social security system (Japan Medical Association Research
Institute [JMARI], 1997, p. 15).
The Long-Term Care Insurance Act that was prepared in 1997 and came into force
in 2000 officially claimed the concept of socialisation of care (kaigo-no-shakaika).
It is widely acknowledged fact that the LTCI system has been planned by a strong
bureaucratic initiative, in compromise with the Japan Medical Association and the
right-wing Liberal Democratic Party (the LDP) members (Ibid.).
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Issues on finance, service provision and the role of municipalities
When the policy of the new system was proposed a tax-based and a social insurance
models for financing were always discussed. Among policy makers, it was widely
acknowledged that the tax-based model introduced in Nordic countries and the United
Kingdom provides ‘more flexible in providing benefits according to the individual’s
need, since income levels and the family’s ability to provide care will be taken into
consideration’ (Ikegami & Campbell, 2002, p. 719). The social insurance model,
introduced in Germany, on the other hand, is more rigid because the individual’s rights
are based on explicit entitlement. In addition, the social insurance model is likely to
provide opportunities for choice, including decisions about the mix of health and social
services’ (Ibid.). An initial system considered by the Ministry of Health, Labour and
Welfare was a tax-based funding model with the existing institutional framework of the
Act on Social Welfare for the Elderly and the Health Care Act for the Aged. After the
nearly 40 years of learning and trial period, Japanese government decided to introduce a
comprehensive LTC policy based on a social insurance model as its new legal institution
because it was regraded easier to mix services with informal care provisions in a social
insurance model than a tax-based model (Campbell & Ikegami, 2003, p. 23; Ôkuma,
2010).
Aside from measures of funding, securing a sufficient amount of community-based
services was another salient issue. As the Japanese version of administrative reform of
regulations and enhancing outsourcing to the private sector, the structure of quasipublic providers comprised of social welfare corporations with strong public control
developed in the 1950s and altered the welfare mix in Japan. The implementation of
the Gold Plan served as a trial-and-error experience by the policy makers. They were
convinced that local authorities were unable to run the completely decentralised
comprehensive LTC planned by the Ministry as municipalities do not have the capacity
to implement the municipal tax-based model common in Nordic countries because the
Japanese ministry officials have to consider the antagonism to Scandinavian model by
financial communities and right wing politicians (Ôkuma, 2010, p. 132, 152). As the
result of the role delegated to local authorities in the 1980s, and as a response to the
Gold Plan, some municipal governments responded actively and developed various
community-based programs. But all in all, the size of the programs were small and
proved that the implied consequences of the programs were not sufficient to support a
comprehensive LTC system (Campbell & Ikegami, 2003, p. 23).
Taking above issues into account, the policy makers in the Ministry decided to use a
social insurance funding model and quasi-market system, a completely different system
to previous welfare system framework, to develop social care markets with relatively
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strong central control. Institutional legacy often explains what type of models for
planning programs are likely to be introduced (Ikegami & Campbell, 2002, p. 724). On
the other hand, the social insurance model was consistent with pension, medical and
unemployment insurance systems introduced in Japan.
As the central government decided to construct the system using social insurance
funding model, prospective insurers for the system were the state, the prefectural
governments, municipalities and medical care insurers. However, the decision to
appoint the insurer had been tangled in the second report of the Council for the Elderly
Health (Rôjin-hoken-shingikai) named the New Eldercare System, the Second Report
(Aratana-kôreisha kaigo-seido-ni-tsuite, dai-ni-ji hôkoku). The decision was postponed
because municipalities were concerned that the proposed LTCI system might become
another medical care insurance; the financing of medical insurance was placing a heavy
fiscal burden on the municipalities and regional employers (JMARI, 1997, p. 26, p. 39).
In March 1996, municipalities were situated as the prospective insurers in Minister
Niwa’s draft policy for the LTCI system, but the issue for the insurer remained unsettled.
Because of strong opposition from municipalities, a final report of the Council for the
Elderly Health issued in April 1996 had to put down state as a primary insurer (Ibid.,
p. 27).
The basic rationale for the Ministry to suggest the role of municipalities as insurers
was to promote decentralisation by delegating the initiative on the implementation of
the system. This delegation was planned to ensure the consistency of providers and
fiscal administrators at the same level. On the contrary to Ministry’s speculation,
municipalities expressed a good reason for the worrying disparity of fiscal capabilities
and level of ageing populations. This anxiety occurred from the perspective of equity
because the national system required sound measures to adjust for disparities among
municipalities (Ibid.).
On May 15, 1996, the Ministry of Health and Welfare came out with a draft and
a group of mayors raised objections to the draft because it stated that municipalities
would be appointed as insurers. The Ministry then reissued the draft taking into account
the anxiety of municipalities, yet the Ministry of Home Affairs and the association of
municipalities still did not agree with the renewed draft. The renewed plan included
financial adjustment measures by establishing a fund by collecting a premium directly
from the insured pension benefit and underlining the responsibility of prefectural
government to support municipalities. The plan also created the following concrete
idea to support each municipality: Each prefectural government would establish a fund;
state, prefectural government and municipalities contributing one-third respectively.
Half of the cost of care needs assessment would be covered by the state. The premium
collecting cost would be paid from the pension fund. There would be more involvement
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of prefectural governments in the administration of the LTCI system to support
municipalities. In September 1996, prefectural governments and the municipalities
agreed to take the role as the insurer because outline of the draft of the amended plan
involved a concrete idea of division of the role of fiscal administration. This amendment
limits the burden of the municipalities as it shares financial burden with the state.
Cash benefits or benefits in-kind?
The question of how to provide benefits by the LTCI system has been a central issue
during the policy process and even after the bill was passed. Municipalities and the
Medical Association supported cash benefits. For municipalities allowing cash benefits
was seen as a good excuse for not developing service provision whereas for doctors,
cash benefits meant more medical related services to provide. While, the so-called
‘the Niwa Draft’ of March 1996, named after Minister Niwa of the Ministry of Health
and Welfare, pronounced that the benefit in-kind would still be covered by the LTCI
system, conservatives in the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) objected to the
draft and insisted that it is necessary to approve cash benefits in order to sustain the
virtue of family caregiving. One of the political episodes around the time was the LDP
Diet representative Kamei Shizuka proclaimed that the LTCI system would destroy
the virtue of family care (Asahi Shimbun, 1999, October 7). The rationale behind the
statement was a popular political move. Conservative LDP members objected to the
LTCI bill because of their desire to be re-elected and not allowing new burdens on their
constituencies (JMARI, 1997, p. 26). The antipathy between the Ministry and the LDP
resulted in the adoption of cash benefits for family care and cash in-kind in the final
report of the Council for the Elderly Health issued on April 1996.
In order to break the impasse of the situation, the Ministry got in line with a
non-profit organisation called the Women’s Association Improving Ageing Society
(Kôrei-shakai o yokusuru jôsei no kai), an organisation closely related to the All Japan
Prefectural and Municipal Workers’ Union (jichirô), a lower organisation of an umbrella
organisation of unions, the Japanese Trade Union Confederation (Rengô), which used
to be the power base of the Socialist Party. The Japan Communist Party opposed the
LTCI system (Etô, 2001). A representative of the women’s pressure group, Ms. Keiko
Higuchi voiced strong objection s to the view of conservative fraction of the LDP that it
is necessary to limit the benefit only to actual services because the cash benefits would
not solve the stressful situation of female carers but consolidate the role of informal
care workers who were mostly women (Ibid., p. 21). The dispute over the benefit types
converged in June 1996 when the policy that was directed to concentrate only on in104
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kind services, was announced in the The Broad Outline for the Long-Term Care System
(Kaigohoken-seido-taikô) issued in June 1996, where small cash benefits as a bonus were
still accepted in the plan.
Combining health and social care
The root of conflating medical care with social care in Japan started when the restriction
of medical expenses of the elderly was carried out by differentiating social care and
medical care cost. The Ministry of Health and Welfare took up the problem of medical
care access by the elderly in response to the Act on Social Welfare for the Elderly as
a policy agenda to convey medical care reform. This strategy taken by the Ministry
provoked controversy between the Ministry of Health and Welfare and the Japan
Medical Association (JMA), because the association established political interests to the
eldercare opened up by the free medical access policy in 1972 (JMARI, 1997, p. 22). At
the Council on Health and Welfare for the Elderly, the vice chairman of the JMA made
the statement that the association cannot support the report initiated by the Ministry
of Health and Welfare.
On a superficial level, the JMA opposed the introduction of a new program because
it required an increased financial burden for the elderly. The JMA also claimed that if
the new program was introduced then it should consider the role played by the medicine
to support the LTC of the elderly and include it in the program. After the second report
issued by the Council for the Elderly Health on January 1996, the JMA proposed a
concrete demand to be reflected in the new program. For example, the council claimed
that the new program should compensate possible revenue loss of medical facilities for
elderly (ryôyô-byôshô) caused by possible curtailment of the medical expenditure policy.
The second report of the Council for the Elderly Health (Rôjin-hoken-shingikai) stated
it is necessary to include so-called home based medical care management fee (kyotakuryôyô-kanri-hi) paid to family doctors as a LTCI benefit. The report also declared that
fees for residential medical facilities should be covered partly by the LTCI system. In
addition, in order to approve that small clinics with beds be designated as medical
facilities (ryôyô-byôshô), the Council on Medical Service Facilities recommended that
consideration should be given to ease the regulation of medical doctors’ staffing in a
medical facilities for elderly. An official report (A Future of Medical Service Provision)
called for the active facilitation of medical corporations in home-based social care
business (Ibid., p. 928).
In June 1996, when the Long-Term Care Insurance bill was submitted, the Ministry
of Health and Welfare sent a package of concessions both to the Council on Medical
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Service Facilities and the Social Security Council. The package stated that the medical
facilities and beds for general patients covered by medical insurance should be
considered as LTCI facilities. Regardless of the Ministry’s compromise, the chairman of
the association suddenly opposed the plan of the new program stating that ‘it is sound
to support the insurance principle to support the LTC of the elderly nationally, but it
is undesirable to adapt the bill, asking additional burden to the elderly, however’ and
concluded ‘a part of care services, which medicine had taken over for the past years
should be included in a bill’ (Ibid., p. 32). Following by the chairman’s statement, an
eleventh-hour decision was reached by a working team of LDP. The Ministry made a
compromise with the JMA to include the role of the medicine in the preamble of the bill.
The Japanese paradigm of care management
The term case management first appeared in an official document dating back to 1984,
issued by the Assembly of Social Welfare of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government (Tôkyô
Shakaifukushi Shingikikai) called On the Future Departure of the Comprehensive
Social Welfare (interim report) [Tôkyôto ni okeru korekara no shakaifukushi no sôgôteki
na tenkai ni tsuite (chûkan-tôshin) (Toba, 2002, p. 35). After its emergence in the
realm of Japanese social welfare, the concept of case and care management were used
interchangeably with one another in Japan and these concepts were actively discussed
by social work academics.
In 1980s, academics started to introduce the North American case management in
eldercare (Oka & Shirasawa, 1987; Shirasawa, 1985). The basic tone of case management
as an idea was regarded favourably recognising its pros and cons. From a management
perspective, the US evaluation studies that were featured in Japan showed that case
management did not reduce hospitalisation nor institutionalisation and consequently,
actually increased costs. However, there were other reasons why the American style
of case management was widely accepted in Japan. Functions such as outreach and
monitoring had contributed to the possibility to offer a quick response to low risk groups
by including them into LTC model programs. Thus, the case management in the US was
not highly appreciated because it did not contribute to cost containment but was seen as
a necessary method to offer quality of life to the elderly (Nakatani, 1989).
In addition, the limitations of implementing the US case management style to
Japan were well recognised because of the privatised and mixed nature of American
welfare provision. In Japan, there were a number of different foci raising interest in
the case management argument in the social work field, one of which was to consider
case management as a missing-link between clients and community resources and to
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realise and promote the Japanese notion of community care called ‘community-based
welfare (chîki-fukushi)’ (Shirasawa, 1986). By and large, Japanese scholars regarded case
management as an effective tool for eldercare in the community (Maeda, 1986; Maeda,
1989; Shirasawa, 1987).
According to scholars who advocated for the need to introduce case management as
an idea to realise a generic approach to achieve community welfare, case management
was regarded as having the potential to overcome the limitations of the traditional
community organisation approach. To deal with the diversified and individualised
needs of clients in modern society, case management thought to develop a link to the
casework approach. Linking resources and managing care services were the big ideas
behind case management (Shirasawa, 1987). Throughout the 1990s, literature written
about case management started to connect the Japanese government’s Gold Plan and
the implementation of case management by installing a so-called home based care
support centre (zaitaku-kaigo-shien-sentâ) in each municipality (Toba, 2002, p. 36).
The next phase that needs to be scrutinised is the process and consequences of the
introduction of care management in the LTCI system. The idea to introduce a concept
akin to the current form of care management in the new eldercare program was stated
already in the interim report of the Investigative Commission of LTC provision (Kaigotaisaku-kentôkai-hôkoku) issued in 1993 (Ôkuma, 2010, pp. 130–136). One direction in
the Japanese understanding of case management has been to conceptualise the models
of case management in terms of the provision of services in the community. The report
referred to the idea of self-help assistance service manager (jiritsu-shien-sâbisu-kanrishi),
which has similar function of visiting nurse in Denmark (Ibid., p. 132). The plan was
that the self-help assistance service managers, a new type of professional working in the
private sector, were expected to act as the key workers who make arrangements for care
services making independent living possible.
Around the year 2000, the government radically changed the structure of social
welfare system (Reforms of the Basic Social Welfare Structure; Shakaifukushi-kisokôzokaikaku) from the old administrative description model to enhance the choices of
users based on enlarging service providers to profit making sectors and non-profit
organisations which used to be dominated by conventional quasi-public organisations
called social welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin). The report referred to the
idea of ‘home based care support’, which was similar to the idea of care management
developed in the UK. When the Japanese government decided to reform the social
service provision similar to the British way, because of its resemblance to the Japanese
tradition to see social welfare characteristically as a public affair, the British style of
adapting ‘care management’ in connection with the community care policy reform in
the UK also attracted attention. Social policy academics started to introduce a series of
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studies on community care reforms especially made at the University of Kent, Personal
Social Services Research Unit (PSSRU) (Hiraoka, 2003). These studies noted the service
production idea for service resource development.
The actual Japanese paradigm of care management (kaigo-shien) had specific
differences from that of US and the UK. First, the local authorities such as social welfare
offices, health care centres or the home based care support centres (zaitaku-kaigo-shiensentâ) were likely providers of care management (Toba, 2002). However, most of the
care management providers were affiliated with diverse private services providers, such
as home help and day care services, thus care management providers may also provide
other types of services for the elderly. By hiring care managers as promoters of affiliated
providers would benefit service provider’s incentives to mobilise care managers. This
purchaser-provider integration that occurred in Japan stems from the reason that
government had a policy objective to secure a sufficient number of care managers
employed in the commercial business sector.
Secondly, a uniform method of care assessment was not introduced. Instead of
introducing a uniform assessment protocol, the Ministry of Health and Welfare
allowed an arbitrary use of protocols and placed the choice of assessment protocols at
each care managers’ disposal. This was because, a number of care assessment protocols
were proposed by different professional groups ranging from medical, health to social
welfare professionals but could not come to an agreement to develop uniformed
assessment standards (Shirasawa, 2002, pp. 206–208). As a result, the Ministry adapted
an assessment method is akin to the Minimum Data Set (MDS) method developed in
the US (Hiroi, 1997, p. 124).
Opposed to the British paradigm of care management introduced in Japan, Soeda
(1999) rearranged assertions of case management in terms of types of service and
resource provision from social welfare point of view. Soeda’s thesis systematically
introduced the structural aspect of provision, ethical issues and case managers’
behaviour into the framework of case management theory. First, Soeda differentiated
two ideal types of services and resource provisions. One is a network and the other is
an administrative type. The network type of provision is loosely tied to a constellation
in which the local authorities act, enhancing to links to social services providers and
community resources. The provision utilises the network coordinator to provide
an efficient and effective service supply. This type works best when most of service
providers are public organisations or non-profit organisations with close ties to local
authorities. In this environment, the local authorities can easily exercise leadership to
develop a comprehensive service mechanism by sharing the meaning and objectives of
network construction among participating organisations. Under such circumstances,
the procedural standards and criteria are loose and worker’s discretion is relatively large.
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The administrative type, on the other hand, features integrating the funds from various
social services and resources. In this type, responsibilities and commissioning powers
to allocate and distribute a wide range of service provisions are delegated to managers or
key workers. Local authorities handle budgets, assessments and commissions of service
allocation. The standardisation of assessment of need level, budgeting framework,
eligibility criteria is official and uniform. Partial discretion on budgets is allowed to
first line workers. Key workers are required to work as first line workers in order to
administer the service providing system as a whole. Standards and criteria are rigorous
and workers’ range of discretion is small (Ibid., pp. 42–43).
By differentiating provision types as shown above, Soeda stressed to make a
distinction between user-directed and system-directed models of care management. The
user-directed model is based on the values and ethics of social work and stresses user
merit. Models such as advocacy, clinical, empowerment and generic models belong to
this line. The system-directed model values efficiency in the service providing system
and case managers are required to contribute to a cost-efficient allocation of the limited
amount of resources. What these distinctions suggest is that most of the so-called
comprehensive models of care management fail to make a clear difference between
the conflicting values between client and system. These immanent opposing objectives
could limit the care management function to a mere administrator of the service system
and endanger both micro functions such as shaping service packages with clients and
gap-filling roles between clients’ needs and resources in the community. Without the
roles of social planning and social service provision reform in the community, care
management cannot be achieved. Thus, Soeda emphasised that the idea behind systemdirected model was not compatible with objectives, ethics and role of social work (Ibid.,
p. 45).
Based on this strand of categorisation, social work scholars started to list alternative
foci to emphasis empowerment and advocacy and to enhance self-help and selfdetermination by situating care management in everyday life (see for example, K.
Kikuchi, 2008; N. Kikuchi, 1996; Kôno, 2006; Sugimoto, 1996). Also, some authors
advocate that care management should not be limited to provide the services covered
by the LTCI (Kitamura, 1998). In this strand of interpretation, care should be planned
as a part of the support for daily living activities, bringing positive changes in clients’
daily life. This is because the objective of using care services is not receiving care per
se, but to ease the performance of daily activities (Kôno, 2006). Some literature states
that care management should also have the perspectives of prevention and intervention
through, for example, counselling roles by care managers. Care management also needs
the eyes of evaluators to promote their clients’ independence. To do this, the role of
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care managers has to be broadened to deal with additional functions on the top of the
assessment of needs, coordination of services and controlling benefits.
A rationale behind this way of thinking is that the perspective of mutual change
between clients and their living environment is a necessary basis for empowerment and
self-management. Independence and self-care are thought to be important in this line
of thought because increasing the ability of self-management by increasing individual
resources offers a sense of security, reduces anxiety and the burden that occurs during
caring. It also increases endurance and the knowledge of institutions and opportunities
to obtain information and finally strengthens older persons’ subjectivity. But the
issue here is that the ability for self-management is diverse among clients. Because of
this reason, the role of the care manager is to enhance and support skills to convey
self-management by clients (N. Kikuchi, 1996, pp. 36–37). Hence, the absence of the
everyday perspectives of clients in care management results in the failure to introduce
concrete measures for empowerment and advocacy. Thus, to realise the empowerment,
advocacy and self-determination of clients, care management have to take tasks such
as finding and linking resources by networking and even generating resources if they
are not available (for example, see Hashimoto, 1991; N. Kikuchi, 1996; Sugimoto, 1996).
4.5 Japanese Development of Welfare Mix in Eldercare
In this chapter, I have revisited the development of Japanese eldercare system from the
era of modernisation. Special emphasis was paid to understand how the Japanese idea
of welfare mix had developed in the modern Japanese welfare state. I should state that
Japanese welfare mix on eldercare contains a particular dualism in making a balance
between public responsibility and the role of private sector. Also, policy learning was
prevalent at any period of time (Rose, 1993) but what makes Japan different is that she
also experienced policy coercion during the occupation.
Under such societal circumstances, the public sector did not become a core provider
to achieve universalism in social services but acted as gatekeeper of keeping ‘Japanese’
elements of society. On the other hand, the private sector always had strong ties to
the government which also acted to maintain a particular balance of welfare mix. I
see the interesting outcome of the Japanese model of LTC from the viewpoint of how
policy makers exerted their own interpretation on the core elements acquired through
policy learning and policy coercion. Japan has actively imported the occidental idea by
policy learning during the modernisation; from Bismarckian social insurance to the
London C.O.S., just to name a few. During wartime, the Japanese welfare system was
rearranged to reflect totalitarianism which was heavily formed using a Japanese ethos.
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But the defeat of the Pacific War made Japan democratise through policy coercion,
directed by the GHQ. Although the public responsibility had clearly drawn down on
the constitution and administrative machineries for relief work had developed, the
central role played to provide social services had been heavily dependent on half-public
organisations with strong governmental control. Thus, the Japanese dualism in welfare
mix was maintained during this top-down policy coercion phase. The Japanese social
services have never been universal with public responsibility because they have always
contained the idea of poor relief.
However, later, when Japan has faced ageing, meaning that the LTC issues have
become a population problem, the Japanese government found that the issue could not
be solved using the old welfare mix balance. Therefore, the government started to learn
LTC policies from Germany, the UK and Nordic countries and developed a Japanese
model of LTC. To enlarge the social care to cover population, the Japanese government
imported a quasi-market and non-profit activity idea allowing pure business sectors
and social organisations to come into social service providers. As these private service
resources are fragmented in the community, new quasi-professionals called care
managers were developed by rearranging the health professional that already exist.
Professionals who convey the actual implementation always have to adapt to new ideas
reflected in the policy. As policy learning and coercion play a vital role in development
of policy, how these processes affect actual clinical and service activities remains
unanswered.
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5 THE OPERATION OF THE LTCI SYSTEM IN JAPAN
As a national program, the Japanese LTCI system enlarged the proportion of coverage
and numbers of beneficiaries through the apparent expansion of finance for formal social
care services. The system is an area-based social insurance system with municipalities
and regional municipality unions (kôiki-rengô) constituted as insurers. The LTCI
system allegedly introduced an ideology of contract for welfare services encouraging
self-determination and choice by the elderly and their family carers. It regarded social
care as a civil right. The introduction of the system is considered as disseminating and
realising the idea of the socialisation of care (kaigo no shakaika) (LTCI Act, Article 1). A
highly standardised administration of the LTCI system is divided into three functions:
the planning of the program, eligibility assessment, and the provision of the service.
The system is reviewed every five years. The first radical reform took place in July 2005
and was implemented from April 2006 until the second reform took place in 2010. The
revision of the fee schedule by the central government and the LTCI system planning
assigned to every municipality is scheduled every three years.
5.1 The LTCI System: Target population, Eligibility and Benefit
In 2010 (from March, 2010 to February, 2011), Japanese social expenditure was 105
trillion JPY (7,409 billion €) shared or 22% of GDP. The total expenditure of the LTCI
system was 7 trillion JPY (49 billion €), which comprises 7% of total social expenditure
or less than 2% of GDP (National Institute of Population and Security Research, 2011,
pp. 5, 10). The proportion of homebound or community-based services accounts for
about 49% (3.5 trillion JPY) of all expenditure and institutional services accounts for
about 41% (2.7 trillion JPY for institutional and 0.23 trillion JPY for LTCI services
provided for private service residence) (MHLW, 2010c).
Target population
In terms of target population, the LTCI system is aimed to cover the population aged
over 65 years categorised as the first insured group (dai-ichi-gô-hihokensha) and over
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40 years of age categorised as the second insured group (dai-ni-gô-hihokensha). Insured
aged 40 years old have the right to use services when the insured are diagnosed as
intractable disease listed in the LTCI Act. The secondary insured pay premiums but
are eligible to use services if the insured fall under a category called specified diseases
(tokutei-shippei). Enrollees who are at least 40 years old and wish to use services covered
by the LTCI system are entitled to apply for the evaluation process. The population who
are eligible for the services called primary insured and aged over 65 make up about 28
million persons or about 22% of whole population. The number of household with the
primary insured add up to 21 million and eligible beneficiaries upon evaluation was
about five million, or 17% of the primary insured (Health, Labour and Welfare Statistics
Association, 2011).
The eligibility criteria
As for the eligibility criteria, in the initial period of the program, the eligibility categories
had been divided into seven care categories; independent (higaitô), meaning applicants
not eligible for the LTCI service use; care assistance (yôshien), meaning applicants who
are slightly frail and eligible for services that prevent the worsening of physical function.
The care needs (yôkaigo) level 1 to 5, relating to the level of service needs assessed
according to the frailty and living environment. The eligibility assessment (yôkaigonintei) process takes three steps; in the initial step, the investigator visits the applicant
and reviews the conditions of the applicant and living environment. Then, the primary
assessment (dai-ichi-ji hantei) is adjudicated based on a computer aided tool and primary
care doctors’ status documents. Thirdly, the secondary assessment (dai-ni-ji hantei) is
adjudicated by a care eligibility assessment council (kaigo-nintei-shinsa-kai) installed in
municipalities using the result of the first assessment and the status description written
by the family doctor.
In the LTCI system, the municipality has to establish a committee to evaluate the
applicants’ eligibility; the evaluation committee has become the de facto intake organ
for the system. In order to minimise discretion discrepancies among municipalities,
members are recruited from academics, medical doctors, dentists, nurses, care
managers or related professionals. These members will discuss the level of the care needs
of applicants considering their conditions such as living environment and household
situation. This qualitative information, the result of the computer-based evaluation and
opinion of the primary medical doctor are utilised to avoid arbitrariness in evaluation.
The result found by the commission is notified to applicants within 40 days after
the receipt of an application. The intake ratio is about 96% according to a survey on
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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eligibility assessment in 2009. The breakdown of categories of eligibility that applied but
were found to be ineligible was 4%, eligible for preventive services 32%, light frailty 34%,
medium to heavier categories 31% (MHLW, 2010c).
Once assessed, the result of the eligibility level is rechecked every six months. If
applicants are not satisfied with the assessment, they have a right to file an appeal to the
governor of the prefectural government. Eligibility evaluation is important for the LTCI
enrolees because the evaluation result will define both the eligibility and the amount
of care services covered by the LTCI system. Enrolees or their family carers may apply
for the LTCI eligibility evaluation at the responsible intake centre in the municipality
where they live. The applicants may directly apply or send mail to a section in charge
of the LTCI system. The result is valid for a half-year then re-evaluation is required for
every six months.
The benefits
In terms of the benefits covered by the LTCI system, they are limited to those in-kind;
insurance does not cover cash benefits to family carers. There is a co-payment for using
the service at the level of 10% of the total fee used by the eligible elderly or family carers.
Insurance covers 90% of the pay. Benefits are covered by the municipal funds where the
users of the service reside. But in such a case that users relocate to a place other than the
previous municipality due to a move in the institution, the cost of service benefits are
covered by municipalities where they previously resided. To ease the burden of the 10%
co-payment, in case the user’s income is below the level of municipal tax exemption,
there is a special assistance (tokutei-nyûshosha-kaigo-sâbisu-hi, tokutei-nyûsho-shakaigoyobô-hi) available to ease the burden of using institutional and short-stay services.
For low-income eligible enrolees, there is also a public assistance program (kaigo-fujo)
to cover the LTCI payment. For low-income users, the means tested public income
assistance (seikatsuhogo), compensates the 10% co-payment. Thus, the LTCI service
usage is practically free of charge for low-income users. The LTCI benefit comprises
the care benefit (kaigo-kyûfu), the preventive care benefit (yobô-kyûfu) and the costly
special benefit provided by municipalities (shichôson-tokubetsu-kyûfu). These benefits
are limited to actual care services because the LTCI system does not pay cash benefits to
family carers. Although municipalities are free to develop the special benefit provided
by municipalities, such provision is rare since it requires additional spending from the
LTCI fund; such additional services lead to the increase in premium payment.
Care service benefits, such as homebound or community-based services are
aimed at providing care to eligible elderly who have been evaluated as care needs level
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(yôkaigodo) 1 to 5. The aggregate of care services includes services providing care to
elderly living at home and to the institutionalised elderly. Services for elderly living at
home are comprised of home help services, the home visit bathing service, home visiting
nursing, home visiting rehabilitation, guidance for medical professionals for the elderly
with chronic illness, day services and short-term institutional care. Group homes are
categorised as homebound services in Japan. Other benefits are allowances for renting
and purchasing care support devices such as medical beds, wheelchairs and necessary
home renovations. These benefits can cover mixtures of services when eligible users use
both services covered by the insurance and those out of the insurance network where
Japanese medical insurance does not permit the mixed use of insurance benefits and
medical treatment other than the treatment allowed in the national health insurance
system.
Institutional services consist of long-term nursing homes (rôjin-fukushi-shisetsu),
health service facilities (rôjin-hoken-shisetsu) and long-term medical hospitals (ryôyôbyôshô). Two types of medical facilities are provisioned. One is covered by the medical
insurance and the other is covered by the LTCI system. The medical insurance covered
facilities enjoy better fee schedules than those covered by the LTCI system. The health
service facility is a post-acute institution to accommodate with daily living abilities after
discharged from hospitals whereas long-term medical hospitals are old age hospitals.
The difference between these two institutions is the level of medical services available.
Semi-private nursing homes called specially assigned private nursing homes (tokuteinyûkyosha-seikatsu-kaigo) have become legitimate LTCI facilities, if they are licensed.
A comprehensive payment system has been introduced and a fixed amount is paid to
institutions in accordance with the care need levels (yôkaigodo). Every insured person
who has been evaluated as ‘care needs level’ is eligible to apply for the LTCI facilities.
The number of beneficiaries using community-based services per month is about
three million beneficiaries. In 2010, beneficiaries with light to mild care levels who use
community-based services are composed from the following care levels. Beneficiaries
with support need 1 and 2 who are eligible to use preventive services are 28%. Care
needs level 1 and 2 are assigned to elders who have relatively light frailty, which
composed 42%. Care needs level 3 to 5 representing mild to heavier care need composed
30%. In 2010, the care needs level 1 accounted for 13%, level 2 (15%), level 3 (14%), level
4 (10%) and level 5 (6%) (MHLW, 2010c). In terms of institutional services, the same
comparable statistics revealed that 840,000 beneficiaries use institutional services per
month. The composition ratio of institutional service users categorised by care level
revealed that beneficiaries with mild to heavier care levels use institutional care services.
Beneficiaries with relatively lighter frailty (care needs level 1 and 2) composed 17%, (5
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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and 12% respectively) and mild to heavier care needs (care level 3 to 5) composed 83%
(21, 30, and 32%) of the institutional services (Ibid.).
Preventive services are aimed at providing care for moderate needs cases evaluated
as care assistance (yôshien) criteria. Basically, preventive services introduced in the
initial phase of the program were comprised from the quite same services provided
for the care needs group. What differed was the amount of services that could be used.
The amount of allowance is defined as less than the care needs level 1. By the 2005
reform, the curtailment of institutional service benefits was used to advance further
community-based care.
As I will describe in detail in later section, the Japanese version of care management
became a solution to link the payment and the service provision. Care management in
the Japanese LTCI system is a benefit provided by the system to help clients to use service.
Care-managers consult with clients to arrange a variety of the services listed above.
Thus, care managers are de facto key workers who determine complex combinations of
the LTCI service benefits purchased by each eligible service user. One peculiar aspect
of the LTCI system is division of intake process and management of care arrangements.
Compared to the care management system adapted in other countries, the Japanese
system is more comprehensive and larger. This is because the government wants to
control the intake process, and not allow it to be done by professionals but rather by
committee in municipalities.
5.2 Administration of the LTCI System
Because of the devolution strategy to implement the LTCI system, the role of the
municipalities in social welfare has changed from a passive agency that delegates
functions to take an active role in the planning and administration of the system.
Normally, as noted earlier, the LTCI system is reviewed every five years, and regional
plans must be made every three years. This municipal responsibility for compiling
the three-year implementation plan for the LTCI system (kaigohoken-jigyô-keikaku)
is mandated in the LTCI statute. Each municipality can situate the plan in its overall
administrative plan; it may be part of macro administrative plans that include a regional
plan for a wide range of social welfare and health or just an administrative plan for
the LTCI implementation. Selecting members of the advisory committee represents one
of the remaining discretionary powers of local authorities. Members are selected from
fields such as academics, providers, the local medical and dentistry association, clubs
for the elderly, the voluntary local welfare activists, insured residents aged over 65 and
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other related parties. The number of members varies by municipalities. These advisory
committees are open to the public and citizens are able to observe the discussion.
Planning
The regional implementation plan is important because it is an officially documented
plan. The plan contains the necessary amount of services estimated by municipalities.
As stated later in detail, the estimates serve as financial support for the three-year
implementation plan that are part of the work to fill in the standardised template to
calculate the LTCI premium level. Other than making the regional plan, the municipalities
administer the system in daily routines tasks such as collecting premiums, organising
the committee for eligibility evaluation and giving administrative direction to providers
under the jurisdiction of each municipality. To avoid regional differences in achieving
necessary care provision, a standard indicated by the Ministry of Health, Labour and
Welfare called the reference standards (sanshakuyôjun) sets the level of provision to be
provided in the region. Municipalities will refer to the standards and submit a plan to
the LTCI system formulating committee.
The role of the prefectural government is rather marginal in the implementation of
the LTCI system. The most important task of the prefectural government is to manage
and authorise LTCI providers. Another role is to provide assistance to municipalities
and disseminate national government guidelines to enable smooth and standardised
implementation. Moreover, a prefectural role is receiving and corresponding to appeals
from applicants who are assessed as not eligible for the LTCI benefits.
Finance and premium
Municipalities decide its’ financing of the LTCI and premium level. The secondary
insured (aged 40 years) pay greater contributions than the primary insured (aged
65 and over). A statutory contribution among the three levels of government differs.
The following shows the rate for community-based services; the state pays 25%, the
prefectural government 12.5% and the municipalities 12.5% of the LTCI fund. As for
the institutional benefits, the proportion of contribution is 20% by states, 17.5% by the
prefectural government and 12.5% by municipal governments (The LTCI Act, article
no. 121, 122, 122, and 124). What municipalities have to decide is the average premium
level for primary insured residents. This average premium (kaigohokenryô-hyôjungetsugaku) is a reference point for the other contribution level. The actual premium
level is calculated by using a template provided by the central government. The template
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reflects various adjustments including the difference in old-old (80 years of age and
over) of the elderly population. It is important to note that if the annual spending of the
LTCI system would mark a surplus, the amount could be reserved (kaigohoken-zaiseianteika-kikin). This reserve is at each municipality’s disposal and can be used to lower
the premium by supplementing premium income.
At the beginning of the implementation, five categories of premium levels were
defined according to income level. In order to reduce the burden of low income insured,
the municipalities now have the freedom to set their own scale of premium segments
but their discretion is limited. For example, out of 62 municipalities, 54 municipalities
in Tokyo had taken multiple premium levels by income differences (Tokyo Metropolitan
Government, 2009). The LTCI system introduced a comprehensive method for collecting
the premium for the population aged over 65 years old who is receiving pensions. Since
municipalities are having difficulties in collecting the health insurance (Kokuminkenkô-hoken) premium using a payment slip, in order to attain a high level of premium
payment, the system introduced a method of deducting the premium directly from the
pension. For those over 40 years old and the self-employed who need to pay a premium
using a payment slip sent from municipalities and those employed and over 40 years old,
the amount will be deducted from the payroll.
Service provisions
Municipalities have responsibility to settle reasonable service provisions in the
community. The government’s central idea to introduce partial privatisation stems
from meeting the balance of quantity and quality of care services. The premise of the
argument is based on the increase of the middle class populations in modern Japanese
society. It had been assumed that the demand for quality in care services would vary
among wealthier elderly in modern Japanese society. Nonetheless, the quantity of
services should meet the needs of the increasing number of elderly.
The Act on Promotion of Specified Non-profit Activities (Act No. 7 of 1998, the
NPO Act) propelled non-profit organisations to be allowed to become certified service
providers. By allowing for-profit companies, conventional social welfare corporations
(shakaifukushi-hôjin), medical corporations (iryô-hôjin) and non-profit organisations
(tokutei-hieirikatsudô-hôjin) to operate as licensed service providers, it has been expected
that the form of mixed provision of care would enhance competition among providers
In the introductory period, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare had taken
measures to lower co-payments or to allow family carers to be certified LTCI providers
in rural areas where provision was expected to be scarce to minimise the inequities
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between urban and rural areas. Though not directly implemented as the LTCI system,
private nursing homes built through market initiative increased in urban areas whereas
the number of the so-called the special nursing homes were chronically shorthanded
to meet the local needs. For example, private nursing homes in urban areas were
promoted which led to price competition among private facilities. The privatisation of
LTC facilities induced budget pricing but facilities for elderly who have insufficient life
savings or suffer from poverty are not well funded (for example, see Asahi Shimbun,
2009, March 22). In order to comply with shortage of moderately priced residential
caring facilities, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism made
initiatives to fund low-cost rent housing with care services (kôreisha-senmon-chintaijyûtaku, kô-sen-chin) and decided to license rental accommodations for elderly by the
Act on Securement of Stable Supply of Elderly Persons’ Housing (kôreisha no jyûkyo no
anteikakuho ni kansuru hôritsu, Act No. 26 of 2001). The act was enforced in 2001 by
the regulating authority, the National Land and Transportation Ministry. The law was
amended in 2011 (Act No. 32 of 28th April, 2011).
5.3 Care Management Functioning
Care management in Japanese is kaigo-shien and care managers are called kaigo-shiensenmonin in legal terms or commonly called kea-mane, an abbreviation form of the
English term care manager. Their task is to develop care plans for clients, evaluate
eligibility and calculate monthly payments for the services used. Care managers work
for community based service providers, comprehensive community care support centre
(chîki-hôkatsu-shien-sentâ) or institutional facilities, and make care plans for residents
in the institutions.
The actual care management process may start before the eligibility level assessment.
If the elderly need immediate services before the application for eligibility is examined,
then the care manager can help them arrange the service and reduce their initial
financial burden. However, care management usually starts when the eligible elderly or
their family carers make a home based care support plan (kyotaku-kaigo-shien-keikaku).
The plan addresses what service is to be used in the range of the services offered on
according to different care levels (The LTCI Act, 7–5, 1997). The fee for care management
is paid by the LTCI fund under care supervision, without any co-payment by clients
(The LTCI Act, 40, 1997).
There are two possible ways to make the care plan. One way is to make the plan with
the eligible elderly or their family carers themselves and the other is delegating the role
to care managers. The former is called the self-made care plan (kaigo-shien-keikakuCoordinating Eldercare in the Community
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jiko-sakusei) (The LTCI Act, 41–6, 1997; The LTCI Enforcement of regulation, The LTCI
Act, 64 §1–2, 1997). When choosing a self-made care plan, eligible enrolees or family
carers pay a lump sum payment and later receive the 90% refund, which withholds the
10% co-payment from the total payment. For eligible enrolees and family carers, selfmade care plan is more technically difficult and financially burdensome than asking the
help of care managers. As the self-made care plan method is difficult and less popular, a
citizen’s movement is trying to advocate for self-made plans.
The most popular and common way is to make contract with a certified care
manager (kaigo-shien-senmonin) and relegate the making of the plan to care managers.
Certified care managers are required to hold a license by passing an examination and
registering with the prefectural government. Qualified experts, who are licensed (e.g.
care workers, social workers, medical doctors, nurses, pharmacists) and who have more
than four years of experience in their field, are eligible to take an examination held
by the prefectural government (kaigo-shien-senmonin-jitsumu-kenshû-jukô-shiken)
(The LTCI Act, Article 69, 1997). The examination is not a license per se but a selection
process that approves, which applicants are eligible to take a seven days seminar.
The majority of the certified care managers belong to profit-making business
institutions registered by prefectural government as LTCI service providers (The LTCI
Act, Article 79). For difficult areas to locate care management providers, an exceptional
status for quasi-qualified providers has been set up to offer services in underserved rural
regions (The LTCI Act, Article 47, 1997). The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
set a fee schedule for care management. As indicated in Table 5.1, the fee schedule for
the care managers has been planned to function as a caseload limitation by introducing
a discounted rate in order not to be overloaded with tasks.
The number of clients to handle is an important aspect of quality services and the
job satisfaction of care managers. In the introductory period, the maximum caseloads
of a single manager were 50 clients in a month. This number of caseloads was regarded
as an overload considering the defined procedures assigned. As a response, in the 2005
revision, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare finally reduced the fee schedule for
the cases over 35 clients per care managers to limit the cases.
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5.4 Revisions of the LTCI System and Fee Schedule
Change for Care Management
The LTCI system requires a major revision every five years along with a revision of the
fee schedule in every three years. Three important revisions are made in the year 2005,
2008 and 2012 revisions. The trend of revisions suggests that the system enlarged the
LTC needs and the government started to consider sustainable policy implementation
as an agenda of the LTCI system.
Revisions of the LTCI
In 2005, the Ministry of Health Labour and Welfare revised the LTCI system
(Kaigohokenhô tôno ichibu wo kaisei suru hôritsu [Amendment Act for revising a part
of the LTCI Act]; Act No. 77, 29th June, 2005) aiming to maintain the sustainability
(jizoku-kanô-sei) of the system by promoting care prevention ideas so as not to increase
the service users and to reduce the level of benefit to the lightly frail elderly as well as to
allocate more benefits to elderly suffering from serious frailty (Abe, 2005, pp. 1–9).
The harsh side of the revision was that the rationalisation of the overall system
management began, for example with the initiation of strict benefit control. The Ministry
started to enforce national guidelines to check appropriate service operations called
the regularisation policy (tekiseika), which aimed to ameliorate regional disparities.
The activity was regarded as a higher ground to standardise the LTCI services among
municipalities. Also, eligibility criteria were changed to enhance prevention and selfhelp. New preventive benefits aimed at the amelioration of the care level were introduced
by re-categorising the moderate frailty group into care assistance (yôshien) levels 1 and
2. The new preventive benefits applied to these groups are developed reflecting notion
to enhance self-help.
Another major change was to consolidate the role of the municipality as an insurer
that the role of the public sector was once again strengthened to some extent. The Ministry
decided to reinforce the role of the municipal government to install the comprehensive
community support centre (chîki-hôkatsu-shien-sentâ) in every municipality to support
the community-based service system. In practice, many municipalities contracted out
the actual daily operations of the centre to social welfare corporations.
The centre is expected to take care of difficult cases such as dealing with domestic
violence, supporting local frail elderly by networking service resources and instructing
the general care managers working in the region. To make this core function work,
each centre must have a public health nurse (hokenshi), a certified social worker
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(shakaifukushishi) and a newly established senior care manager (shunin-kaigo- shiensennmonin) who are assigned to direct care managers to deal with cases with very
complex problems.
The other main task is to back up the new idea of care prevention. The centre is
required to work closely with the municipalities and develop local preventive service
resources, such as muscle training, fall prevention exercises and the dementia
prevention programs financed by the LTCI budget. Also, a new preventive care plan
method (kaigoyobô-shien-keikaku) for care assistance (yôshien) residence is required of
the centre. The core idea to develop such plan is represented in a new idea called positive
care plan (pojitibu-keapuran). It encourages frail elders to use their remaining ability to
avoid further deterioration of care levels by actively participating in everyday household
chores. Aside from the establishment of the centre, the municipality was delegated the
authority from prefectural governments to license small community service providers
and to inspect the quality of service providers.
The 2008 revision (Kaigohokenhô oyobi rôjinfukushihô no ichibu wo kaisei suru hôritsu
[Amendment Act for revising a part of the LTCI Act and the Act on Social Welfare for
the Elderly]; Act no. 42, 28th May, 2008) aimed at consolidating compliance, enforcing
the right to investigate up to the head office of service providers, and clarifying the
responsibility of remaining clients when providers closed their business corresponding
to the so-called Comsn-shock, a series of large-scale fraud scandals by one of the major
care service suppliers.
The turnover rate of care staff became a serious problem in maintaining the level
of services to meet needs as well as quality services. To comply with this problem,
the Ministry altered part of the Long-Term Care Insurance Act and the Act on Social
Welfare for the Elderly. The Ministry introduced measures to increase the wage level to
maintain the stability of care staff in 2008 (kaigojûjishatô no jinzaikakuho no tameno
kaigojûjisha tôno shogû kaizen ni kansuru hôritsu, Act no. 44, 28th May, 2008). This
measure continued as a fund for subsidy to ameliorate the income level of the care staffs,
which was secured in the supplementary budget of 2009.
The 2012 revision (Kaigosâbisu no kiban kyôka no tameno kaigohokenhô tô no ichibu
wo kaiseisuru hôritsu [Amendment Act for revising a part of the LTCI Act and related
Act for an enhancement of the LTC service infrastructure]; Act No. 72, 22nd June, 2011],
as a result of the commission recommendation, the Ministry revised the LTCI system to
promote an idea of so-called the Comprehensive Community Care Plan (chîki-hôkatsukea) to establish a basis for community care and to implement efficiency and the
prioritisation of use of resources. The idea intended to stress, the linkage of medical and
social care, maintaining the stable employment of care staff and the quality of services,
developing and maintaining elder housing, promoting measures for elders suffering
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from Alzheimer’s disease and alleviating increases LTCI premium level (Health, Labour
and Welfare Statistics Association, 2011).
Fee schedule change of care management
Changes in the fee schedule of care management was carried out to accommodate two
objectives. First, controlling the number of clients handled by single care managers in
order to secure the quality. Second, to prompt policy direction made by the Ministry.
When the LTCI system started, the levels of care needs defined the fee schedule
for the care management. Fees are counted in unit points as a standard unit point is
counted as 10 JPY. As indicated in Table 5.1, the fee schedule started from 650 unit
points per clients. For the heaviest case, that is care level 5, the norm was 840 unit
points. Community-based care services were weighed according to area differences;
providers in rural areas received more points compared to urban providers.
Between 2000 and 2010, the changes concerning care management took place when
the revisions of the fee schedule (2003 and 2009) and the major system reform of 2005
took place. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 describe the change in the fee schedules and Table 5.3
represents new additional fees introduced by the reform.
Table 5.1. Fee Schedule Revision for Care Management (1)
Introduction in
2000
Revision of Fee Schedule
2003
Criteria for ideal number of cases per
care manager
50
50
Care assistance
650
850
Care level 1 and 2
720
Care level 3, 4, and 5
840
(Units per month, 1 units=10 JPY, 0.079€; 1 JPY=0.079€, April, 2015)
‘Applicable standards for the cost for approved care management’, The Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance
No. 20 (20th February, 2000) [Shiteikyotakukaigoshien ni yôsuru hiyô no gaku no santei ni kansuru kijun. Heisei
12 nen 2 gatsu 20 nichi Kôseisho kokuji dai 20 gô]. The Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance No. 490 (28th
December, 2000). [Heisei 12nen 12gatsu 28nichi Kôseisho kokuji dai 490 gô]. The Ministry of Health, Labour and
Welfare Ordinance, No. 51 (24th February, 2003. 51) [Heisei 15 nen 2 gatsu 24 nichi Kôseirôdôsho kokuji dai 51
gô]. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare Ordinance, No. 124 (14th March, 2006) [Heisei 18nen 3 gatsu 14
nichi Kôseirôdôsho kokuji dai 124 gô]. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare Ordinance, No. 51 (13th March,
2009) [Heisei 21 nen 3 gatsu 13 nichi Kôseirôdôsho kokuji dai 51 gô]. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
Ordinance, No. 88 (24th March, 2012) [Heisei 24 nen 3 gatsu 24 nichi Kôseirôdôsho kokuji dai 88 gô]
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Table 5.2. Fee Schedule Revision for Care Management (2)
LTCI Major Revision 2006
Criteria of cases
Revision of Fee Schedule 2009
(I)
(II)
(III)
(I)
(II)
(III)
Care level 1 and 2
1,000
600
400
1,000
500
300
Care level 3, 4, and 5
1,300
780
520
1,300
650
390
(Units per month, 1 unit point=10 JPY, 0.079€; 1 JPY=0.079€, April, 2015)
[LTCI major revision]
(1) Fee applied for all cases less than 40 cases, including half of preventive care management
(II) Fee applied for all cases over 40 less than 60 cases
(III) Fee applied for all cases Over 60 cases
[Revision of the fee schedule in 2009]
(I) Fee for all cases less than 40 cases
(II) Fee applied for over 40 cases More than 40, less than 60 cases
(III) Fee applied for all cases Over 60 cases
The revision of the fee schedule in 2003 changed the progressive fee schedule for care
management to a single fee schedule and also ameliorated the level of the fee.
In the major reform of 2005, an additional fee was introduced for making care plans
for complex cases. Hundred unit points were added for clients who need to mix more
than four different community-based care services. On the other hand, a punitive
provision due to poor quality service was also introduced. If care managers failed to
meet one of the following, unit points can be reduced by as much as 30%: 1) deliver care
plan to clients, 2) visit clients and comply with evaluation records every three months, 3)
arrange a care service conference to collect opinions from care workers in charge when
intake care level is approved for the first time or altered by the decision of the intake
care level group.
In 2009, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare finally altered the fee schedule
criteria to promote an optimal caseload for care managers at the normal course of revision
of the fee schedule. The criterion set by the Ministry in the 2006 revision was that the
reduction was applicable to all cases when the average number of care managers’ clients
exceeded 40. The revision loosened this criterion because the reduction was applicable
only to cases that exceeded the limit. The 2009 revision also introduced an additional
fee to enhance the quality of services. For providers that have succeeded in fulfilling
the required criteria, additional fees are paid. The new fee was introduced to enhance
seamless transfer among hospitals, medical clinics and institutions for admission and
discharge of elder clients. It was also intended to offer short stay and day care services
in relatively small community areas, and an additional fee to support clients with
dementia living alone, as well as a fee to enhance linkage with newly developed small-
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scale community care providers. Finally, an additional fee to make care plans 1) for new
intake clients, and 2) for prevention was introduced.
Table 5.3 Additional Fees for Care Management
Contents of additional fees
Special area care management
Year
Change
2000
15% (per month)
For small scale providers in mountain area
2009
10%(per month)
Intake addition
2000
(I) 250 units/month
2009
(II) 300 units/month
Elderly living alone
2009
150 units/month
Elderly with dementia
2009
150 units/month
Specific providers addition
2000
(I)500 units/month
2009
(II)500 → 300 units/month
Medical Linkage fee
2009
150 units/month→200 units/month
Discharge planning
2009
(I) 400 units/time
(II) 600 units/time, 3 times maximum
Coordination fee for small-scale multifunctional care
providers
2009
300 units/ month
Care prevention support fee
2009
400 units → 412units/month
Information linkage fee for hospitalisation
2012
100 units/month
Multiple complex service providers
2012
300 units/month
Emergency conference fee
2012
200 units/time, twice maximum
5.5 Public Response and Debates on the LTCI System
Before the introduction of the LTCI system, the media response generally favoured
the new social insurance system because its objective was to ease the eldercare burden
and future anxiety among the general public. A business daily paper made a series of
reports that regarded social care as a business opportunity (Nihon Keizai Shimbun,
2000, January 26; Nomura Research Institute, 2000).
On the other hand, the low profit nature of homebound care services defined by
low fee schedules had been pointed out by a number of think tanks. Moreover, daily
newspapers placed particular emphasis on the anticipated activity of non-profit
organisations and their expected contribution to the LTCI system (Asakawa, 2000a;
2000b). Furthermore, many articles focused on the political debate over the use of home
help services and whether or not to introduce a cash allowance (Asahi Shimbun, 2000,
February 12).
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Others notably reported progress in preparation for municipalities with the tone that
the LTCI system could be seen as a touchstone to realise decentralisation and municipal
autonomy (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2000, January 4). After the revision of the LTCI
system in 2005 (implemented in 2006), number of issues on the system was revealed.
These issues were scandals of providers, shortage of labour supply in the business,
cutbacks to the benefits for less severe cases and regional disparities in implementation
of the LTCI program.
5.5.1
Debates on the administration of the LTCI system
In terms of premiums of the LTCI, the level of premiums has been increasing rapidly.
In 2009, premium levels among municipalities more than doubled (Sato, 2009a). In the
initial phase, municipalities tried to introduce premium exemption policies of their
own to consider financial burden affecting to lower income populations. This attempt
was opposed by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare which stated that the
exemption policy would make the whole system collapse. However, as critiques insisted
that the premium policies do not accommodate income differences among elderly, the
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare begun to introduce an exemption policy for the
secondary insured and later the Ministry adapted a policy to allow the insurer to set a
gradual premium rate based on income level (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2000, February
17). It was also revealed that the fund to curb increasing premiums was not used as
intended in a number of municipalities (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2008, May 22).
One of the debated areas in the introductory period of the LTCI was the eligibility
evaluation. Before the implementation of the LTCI system, an experimental evaluation
was carried out by a number of municipalities. The result of the trial showed more
eligible elderly than the Ministry of Health and Welfare had estimated (Saito, 2000,
pp. 111–112). Instead of standardising the criteria for eligibility evaluation, a plan
for establishing own regional evaluation criteria was presented by a municipality in
Chiba prefecture. The move was regarded as an attempt by the municipality to achieve
autonomy in the LTCI system implementation; however, the move was deterred by the
final plan for the system (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2000, January 24). Initially, computer
aided initial evaluation was criticised because it would assess the care needs of demented
elderly lower than it should: An insistence on using a scientific approach to define
criteria for eligibility regarded that the eligibility evaluation system may have been seen
as an opportunity to manipulate a lower admission rate and even criticised the misuse
of the algorithm behind the evaluation program (Saito, 2000, pp. 110–114). It was also
recognised there were disparities in the evaluation results among regions, which had
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been widely reported (Asahi Shimbun, 2000, March 2; Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2000,
June 8). The reason why the computer aided primary evaluation could not represent the
actual living conditions of the elderly was that the logic of the software was not aimed at
evaluating care needs generated in daily life and family composition.
The media widely reported that elderly suffering from dementia living with families
entangled in crime, as well as homicide cases regarding care receivers. Because of the
media exposure of such cases, the need for social programs to give special attention
to elderly with dementia and their families became widely recognised. But the logic
strongly tended to assess physical disability and because the secondary evaluation
process left little room to change the result made by the primary evaluation, there was
practically no room left to reflect opinions of professionals.
By and large, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare had been consistent in
insisting on the scientific nature of the assessment and attributing the disparities to
human factors. A number of revision measures including controlling the selection of
the secondary eligibility assessment committee members have been conducted. In order
to standardise the outcome of the evaluation, the Ministry finally made a decision only
to approve direct assessment operation by municipalities and banned the outsourcing of
the process to private providers (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2005, January 10).
In regard to the right of applicants to make a petition of objection to the evaluation,
a critique pointed out that no clear deadlines were stated in the law for receiving a
response to appeals filed by applicants. According to Saito (2000), regardless of the long
wait for a ruling, no compensation would be made before the date of complaint. The
applicants’ right to receive services was seen as having deteriorated from the previous
administrative system. Because the previous system gave the mayor of the municipality
the responsibility of making decisions on intake processes, the central government had
the ultimate responsibility for the intake process. As time went by, the problem of care
needs evaluation and rapid increase of users with relatively light disability cases caused
an unexpected increase of in LTCI expenditure.
The eligibility categories were changed twice in 2005 and 2008. In the 2005 revision,
in which the categories were modified into eight categories; independent, care assistance
1 and 2, care needs level 1 to 5, increasing 1 moderate category. An official explanation
for the rearrangement of the eligibility criteria was to distribute limited resources to the
more frail elderly. Concretely, two relatively moderate frailty categories (care assistance
and care needs level 1) were changed into three categories (care assistance level 1, 2 and
care needs level 1). When introducing the new segments in care assistance category, it
had been assumed that a considerable number of the care needs level 1 and 2 would be
evaluated as moderate conditions compared to the previous segment. A transitional
measure was taken the position of previously appointed category. This measure was
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applicable only for a one-year after the introduction of the new need evaluation method.
Previously it had been reported that the rearrangement of eligibility categories had
succeeded in holding down the estimated increase of moderate eligible.
The second change took place in 2008, when the number of items for the check-up
assessment was reduced. This change sparked a debate that the category for applicants
with dementia would be seen as having smaller needs than evaluation using the existing
84 items. The background of the item reduction was the claim made at one of the internal
committee of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare called the Care Assessment
Admission Investigative Commission (yôkaigo-nintei-chôsakai) in October 2006. The
opinion was that a reconsideration of the assessment criteria had been necessary since 82
items used in the assessment are too many and makes the assessment process extremely
complicated. In accordance with the opinion, the committee added 6 items concerning
shopping and cooking, omitting 14 items representing many items reflecting behaviour
of demented patients.
Taking criticism from family and from experts, 9 items were brought back to
the assessment items. It was reported that 43% of the applicants had been classified
into a lighter category and in order to keep the previously evaluated category, many
municipalities made an attempt to modify the downgraded category through the
secondary evaluation (Arita & Sato, 2009; Suzuki & Sato, 2009).
While the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare was denying their intention to
control the distribution of care needs, an informal document stating that the Ministry
of Health, Labour and Welfare intended to manipulate distribution of care categories
by computer program adjustment was revealed at the Diet (Suzuki, 2009). Concerning
the new assessment standards introduced in April 2009, the Ministry of Health, Labour
and Welfare issued an internal report for budget request. The report indicated that
recent admission rate of costly care needs level 1 had been higher than estimated so that
the proportion between care needs level 1 and inexpensive care assistance 2 should be
approximated to 3 to 7 by amending the assessment software.
The integration of the disabled over 20 years of age into the LTCI system was
discussed over again from the 2005 Revision. The official claim of the policy discussion
for enlargement of the target population was issue of universalism. However, the actual
rationale behind the integration policy was the sustainability of the program: The rapid
increase of the LTCI premium was seen as an obstacle to the program sustainability.
Initially, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare reported that the estimated increase
of the LTCI premium in 2005 would be as high as 14% (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2004,
February 20; June 26; July 31). Then the Ministry began to campaign the enlargement of
premium contributors from age of 40 to the age of 20. To do so, the Ministry proposed
a plan to cover all the disabled over the age of 20 by the LTCI system to achieve the
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financial stabilisation of the LTCI system as a whole. Then it followed up with an interim
report issued by the Social Security Council (Shakai-hoshô-seido-shingikai). The council
discussed possible integration with services for disabled called the support fee system
(shien-hi-seido) (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2004, June 26; July 31). But the plan made by
the Ministry was strongly opposed by the interest groups of the disabled.
The Ministry’s attempt to integrate the disabled to the program was preserved again
and restarted the discussion by submitting a plan that integrated the disabled into the
LTCI (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2004, October 1). Around the same time, the Ministry
made a report that the LTCI premium would be over 4,000 JPY, 20% higher than the
actual premium level if the enlargement policy could not be achieved (Nihon Keizai
Shimbun, 2004, October 13) but if the enlargement policy were realised, the premium
level would be as low as 3,900 JPY (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2004, October 30). Also,
the minister of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare presented a simulation and
indicated an additional 4,000 billion JPY would be charged to companies (Nihon Keizai
Shimbun, 2004a, November 11).
After a series of simulations, some members of the council remarked objections to
the proposal (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2004b, November 11). Even the chair of the Social
Security Council also showed his opposition to the plan (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2004a,
November 23). Consequently, the Ministry stopped promoting the policy in 2004 and
proposed a compromised plan (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2004b, November 23).
The Ministry tried to take the agenda up again at a discussion session with
experts on 2006, not mentioning the plan to integrate with the disabled population
but concentrating on enlarging the policy to cover those over 20 years old (Nihon
Keizai Shimbun, 2006, March 7). Again, it was decided to postpone the decision at the
discussion session (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2007, May 22).
5.5.2 Demand and supply sides debates on service use
Demand side
Years of implementing the LTCI system revealed that expenditure of whole system
rose sharply. The LTCI system enhanced prospective service use compared to services
provided by pre-LTCI system, a means-tested administrative order. However, in the
initial phase, clients were reported to not be using services to the extent projected in
the plan (Asahi Shimbun, 2008, December 10). For example, a study estimated that
61% of municipalities marked a surplus and even 14% of municipalities collected 20%
extra income than actual expenditure, revealing that services were not used at the level
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indicated in the regional plan (Ono & Namai, 2008). Yearly, the number of service users
nonetheless gradually increased and the sustainability of the system became the central
agenda of the Ministry. The Ministry developed methods to ensure appropriate service
operation to maintain the sustainability of the LTCI system. In the 2005 Revision,
packages such as care prevention and strict benefit controls called regularisation
(tekiseika) were introduced (Asahi Shimbun, 2005, February 8). The austerity measure
taken by the revision ended up in reducing the number of eligibles who are relatively
less frail. Concretely, the ministry had reinforced the idea of independence (jiritsu) and
changed the criteria of the eligibility, the content of the services and the curtailment of
institutional benefits.
After the change, a report stating that disparities were observed in home help
service use by those who live with their family carers. Part of the explanation of these
disparities was attributed to the guidance given by care managers to users, which is
said to be directed by the municipalities. When clients live with their family members,
care managers were instructed by some municipalities to persuade them not to use
home help services, and some municipalities do not encourage care managers to do the
same (Asakawa, 2006). The discrepancies in guidance practices among municipalities
confused both clients and care managers. The issue was officially questioned at the Diet
that the municipal guidelines were inappropriate. The Ministry replied that basically,
the decision to guide the care managers had to be made by each municipality based
on the conditions of individual cases. Thus, no official guidelines were given to the
municipalities to limit available services for those clients living with family carers and a
uniform application of the restriction was denied.
Though municipal guidelines were given to care managers, some managers were
directed to refrain from using home help services for clients living with families.
Moreover, services such as night home help services did not function well because
of the shortage of available home-helpers. As for the long-term medical facilities, the
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare was willing to reduce costly institutional
care by promoting switch over to the health care facilities for the elderly (rôjin-hokenshisetsu). However, recently, only 35% of the facilities were willing to follow the policy.
There has been concern that a reduced number of beds in medical facilities may create
a care refugee (kaigo-nammin) who is discharged but has no place to go (Maeda, 2008).
The preventive service (yobô-kyûfu) was changed after the revision. Prior to the
revision, the service did not differ qualitatively from ordinary homebound care. For
example, preventive home care did not have a qualitative difference from the home
care in the care needs (yôshien) group. But after the revision, the Ministry rearranged
preventive care services. What happened was the actual service contents of eligible
elderly who belong to these groups had to face a reduced amount of benefits and a
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changed content of services. Also, eligible elderly and family carers for the preventive
service were asked to perform some part of the household chores depending on their
remaining abilities. The scientific rationale for advancing this new policy was based on
a study that asserted the continuous use of household support service (seikatsu-shien)
by the moderately frail elderly might result in a loss of self-care capabilities and induce
the disuse syndrome (haiyô-shôkôgun) (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2005, August 11). This
measure pushes more rehabilitation type of intervention, for example, if the eligible
elderly have the capacity to peel a carrot, then home-helpers must ask them to peel and
consequently they are asked to take part in the everyday chores.
The introduction of new preventive services by the LTCI fund was not as contentious
as it was anticipated. The official objective of the introduction of preventive services
stated by the Ministry was to suppress the appearance ratio of future service users to
buffer the increasing LTCI service use to sustain the system (Asahi Shimbun, 2005,
February 8). The new program started to emphasise self-care such as isometrics and
other preventive measures. The idea of prevention, especially isometrics, was broadly
acknowledged because a wide variety of leisure activity among the elderly had been
regarded as a model to enjoy healthy and a socially active life. When the Ministry
of Health, Labour and Welfare announced the effect of isometrics for the elderly, a
prevention boom grew in the media (Degawa & Ishi, 2005). However, the tone of the
media altered after the revision took place in April 2005. It was widely pointed out that
the use of preventive service per se had been far lower than estimated; the elderly who
became eligible for the services tended not to use the preventive measures (Itagaki,
2006).
In 2008, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare reported the result of a study that
found the positive impact of new preventive care measures, however, considering that
there was lower utilisation of preventive services and a change in evaluation categories
the effect of the overall preventive measure raised critical opinions (Nakamura, 2008b).
The revision had intended to contain spending by reducing both the number of the
eligible elderly and the service use of moderate clients. The media covered the story
of the elderly who had faced reduced services and cases suffering from increased copayments because of the comprehensive payments introduced to use preventive services
(Uetsuka, 2005; Nishiyama, 2005). This policy stabilised the increase of the cost in the
year 2006 (Asahi Shimbun, 2008, July 2).
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Supply side
Before the commencement of the LTCI, the media had put together a variety of feature
stories on the care market (kaigo-shijô) and care business (kaigo-bijinesu). Because the
provision of home care or community-based care in Japan received less funding before
the enactment of the LTCI. When the government announced it was to introduce the
new social insurance program utilising the private sector, the media responded actively
to the mixed provision of care.
The term ‘care (kaigo)’ has become a widely recognised keyword not only in welfare
but also in the field of economics and business. Wide ranges of articles on newly formed
companies were found here and there. Some companies did not directly develop care
services but started fringe services for elderly and carers. The share prices of companies
in the care industry rose. All in all, the media displayed an optimistic mood for
infrastructure development initiated by the private sector (Inoue, 2003). There was a
noteworthy increase in the private providers, especially in homebound care services.
Not only profit making companies but also non-profit organisations were expected to
take active roles to improve quality through competition. The enactment of the NPO Act
offered incentives for non-profit organisations to become licensed LTCI providers. Most
of registered non-profit organisations were traditional grassroots-level organisations
dependent upon donors and grants.
Soon after the enactment of the system, the unprofitable nature of the business,
even below cost of the providers, became apparent (Asahi Shimbun, 2002, October
29). The industry started to make requests to the Ministry to increase fee schedule for
homebound care services. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare occasionally
changed the fee schedule every three years. This rigorous manipulation of the fee
schedule and requirements aimed to restrict excess profit by service providers. Thanks
to an active operation to stimulate demand and propel the business to enter into the
care industries in the initial phase, the surplus of the four major companies showed
record high between 2002 and 2003 (Asahi Shimbun, 2002, May 25). Accordingly
the LTCI expenditure doubled. In order to cope with the unexpected rapid increase
in expenditure, the Ministry decided to lower the overall service fee schedule for 2%,
in lieu of reducing the expensive institutional service fee and increasing the cheaper
home help fee up to 2%. This measure had a limited impact on the corporate profit of
homebound care providers. After the 2005 revision, the ordinary profit and loss among
the 15 major care related companies had risen in the first half of 2006 but showed a
downturn trend in the latter half of the year (Asahi Shimbun, 2007, July 5).
The non-profit sector also revealed structure dualities. As the LTCI system expanded
its profit-earning opportunity for these organisations, some had chosen not to be
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licensed as LTCI providers. As a consequence, the difference in business scale between
the registered non-profit organisations with LTCI revenue and grassroots organisations
without such revenue widened and created a dual structure of non-profit sector in Japan
(Shimmei, 2003, pp. 27–34).
One of the central problems of the management of funding is how to maintain
adequate service provision for community care aiming to cope with regional differences
(Asahi Shimbun, 2000, January, 9). The absolute quantity of community-based care and
health services around the country grew after the implementation of the LTCI through
the use of the private sector in infrastructure development. However, regional disparities
of service provision among regions were reported. In an introductory phase, the media
and various governmental committees reported that there were disparities among
regions and the amount of services available in each region was heavily affected by the
type and amount of existing services and the amount of services differed widely by the
region (Takegawa, 2001, pp. 94–99). The infrastructure of services was at an insufficient
level in the islands and mountain-ringed regions.
It was widely recognised that municipal endeavours to prepare community care
provision create disparities in welfare services, however, in such municipalities where
medical institutions have strong traditions, there is a tendency to make infrastructure
through the framework of medical complexes. Niki pointed out that medical
corporations would actively enter into the care services for the elderly formulating a
‘health, medicine-welfare complex body (hoken-iryô-fukushi-fukugôtai)’ (Niki, 1998).
Since sufficient service provision may induce possible expenditure increase in the future,
every municipality has to consider the balance between the fiscal aspect and amount of
service provision.
As far as the role of municipalities in preparation of service provision was concerned,
the standardisation method directed by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare has
been enhanced. The control introduced by guidelines limits municipal discretion for
planning the necessary amount of service provision. For example, most facilities were
licensed by the prefectural governments and municipalities only hold responsibility for
some of the community-based facilities established after the 2005 revision. For example,
municipalities give licence to the small type community service units (shôkibo-takinôsentâ). However, what is happening under the LTCI system is that because municipalities
are sensitive to future rise in the premiums, they have begun to diminish the construction
of small facilities and private nursing homes (tokutei-yûryô fukushi-shisetsu) in order to
control a rise in the LTCI expenditure.
The problem of the administration of the provision is that when municipalities
calculate the necessary level of care services for the LTCI regional implementation plan
(kaigo-hoken-jigyô-keikaku), the template used for calculations only assumes utilisation
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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rates by clients as low as 30 to 40% of available service benefits. Along with the fact that
there is no official mechanism to evaluate regional LTCI implementation plans, there is
little to motivate municipalities to solve deficits in care service provision because their
interests lay in developing a financially balanced provision of care services. As a result,
the shortage of moderately priced residential facilities in urban areas, especially for
kinless elderly suffering from severe dementia or receiving relatively small pensions,
had forced these poor and kinless elderly moving out from their living community
(Asahi Shimbun, 2009, March 22). As previously noted, while most of municipalities
are motivated to control the number of care facilities to be built in their region, some
municipalities started to relocate these elderly to the unlicensed care facilities outside
their regions. However, the ability of municipalities to cope with general welfare
provision was highly questioned (Mainichi Shimbun, 2009, May 1).
Another way to realise municipalities’ policy is to use some kind of informal guidance
to realise an adequate level of service (tekiseika) (Asahi Shimbun, 2004, January 31).
The top-down adaptation of administrative guidance to users and providers by each
municipal government remains municipal governments’ own decision. A number of
unlicensed facilities to accommodate clients who receive public income assistance were
developed in urban and rural areas because of the shortage of residential facilities in
urban area. The poor elderly who receives public assistance was regarded as an easy
target to collect money covered by the Public Assistance Act. In March 2009, one of these
unlicensed care facilities run by a registered non-profit organisation caught fire and 10
kinless and poor elderly died. After the incident the Ministry of Health, Labour and
Welfare carried out a survey. Although the number of unlicensed facilities decreased,
446 unlicensed care facilities remained largely in the countryside (Sato, 2009b). Most
of these unlicensed facilities were said to fall short of both care quality and building
standards (Ishihara, 2009).
The shortage of provision is true of the non-profit organisations providing LTCI
services. The LTCI system requires the active participation of community citizens to
realise the comprehensive community care (chiki-hôkatsu-kea) idea in collaboration
with the public sector. However, it is not obvious that this ideal has been reached.
Although the number of non-profit organisations actually showed highest increase in
community-based care providers but from a point of view of absolute number providing
services, the share of non-profit organisations as a LTCI provider was limited and the
distribution of non-profit organisations varied among regions (Miyazawa, 2003).
Another prominent debates are about issues of compliance by service providers. As
years passed after the initial period of implementation of the system, the media started
to report issues of compliance and market failure by the private service providers. After
the enactment of the LTCI system, the media frequently reported illegal acts not only
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by for-profit companies but also by non-profit providers. The illegal conduct reported
included revelations of malicious business practices. One scheme to sell relatively
expensive private nursing home based on the deceptive labelling of services grew sharply.
So called the Comsn shock, which took place in 2007, became the most notorious of
these unlawful deeds. Comsn, Inc., one of the major private companies in care industry,
had been regularly violating the statutory staffing standard and dishonestly filing for
care treatment fees (Asahi Shimbun, 2006, December 27).
Still, the shortage of labour supply in care market and the realisation of steady
employment and stabilisation of labour supply in the care service sector are central in
the public attention (Morimoto, Ara, & Nakamura, 2008). Before the commencement
of the LTCI system, low care fees induced a high labour turnover rate among homehelpers. Already in the early phase of its introduction, the difficult situation of hiring
and high turnover rate among care workers was reported. The shortage of labour supply
in the sector caused problems in the development of service provision and also affected
the quality of services. For example, the actual increase in the number of night home
help providers did not directly contribute to easing the needs for night care because the
shortage of the home-helpers could not comply with the increased needs.
The Government introduced a program to educate foreigners as certified care
workers under the Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) (Asahi Shimbun, 2006,
September 12). The program welcomed young prospective care workers from Indonesia
and from the Philippines but due to the economic downturn caused by the so-called
Subprime mortgage crisis in autumn 2008, the number of job opportunities turned
out to be less than number of applications. Still after nine years of the LTCI system,
the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare failed to present any effective measures to
solve the chronic shortage of labour supply. Some thought the downturn in the economy
might solve the labour shortage of the care industry, however, because the nature of the
labour shortage in care work stems from unstable condition of workers and care work
requires comprehensive training and an aptitude for the work, it was thought that such
an optimistic view was inadequate. The need for workers in the care industry did not
function as an adjustment valve in conditions of increasing unemployment (Kawaguchi,
2009; Nakamura, Minami, & Ikuta, 2009).
Thanks to an expanded fiscal policy as a response to recession after the economic
downturn in 2008, the Ministry decided to increase the care fee schedule without
raising the level of the premium but rather developing a fund using a special budget
introduced to cope with the economic crisis (Asahi Shimbun, 2009, March 27). In
addition, the ministry decided to increase fee schedule in 2009 (Nakamura, 2008a).
Although, the overall rise of the fee schedule was the first attempt in 10 years, the media
was concerned that a considerable amount of the increased revenues may be used to
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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cover the operating expenses of providers, rather than directly ameliorating the wage
level of the care workers (Asahi Shimbun, 2008, December 13).
5.5.3 Debating the Japanese paradigm of care management
The Japanese government situated care management at the centre of the LTCI system.
In other words, the system’s success relies on how well care management works. Care
managers in Japan are generously placed in the community and the care management fee
is fully compensated by the insurance fund. This is because the LTCI system encourages
service users to consult with care managers when making care plans. Because of the
system design, care management as a program is widely recognised in Japan. About 60%
of service users of the LTCI utilise care management. The number of care management
users increased by 68% between 2000 and 2005.
Despite of its current popularity, the introductory phase of the system was in chaotic
situation caused by the insufficient preparation of care planning handled by care
managers who seemingly could not meet the commencement date of the system. Also,
the caseload of a single care manager has been always an issue because care managers
are asked to handle a great deal of clerical paperwork and care arrangement work
within the strict procedures defined in the law. The service user satisfaction on care
management suggested that overall user satisfaction on the service was relatively high
regardless of differences in region or in caring situation after the implementation of the
LTCI (Asakawa, 2010; Kikuchi & Yamanoi, 2003; Tanaka, 2005).
The revision of 2005 altered the evaluation criteria, hence the number of eligible
users and care management users declined accordingly (Table 5.4). Compared to 2005, a
decrease in numbers continued until 2008. The decrease is attributable to change in care
needs level categories, which took place in the 2005 major LTCI revision. The change
buffered the increase in the number of eligible users as a whole. Table 5.5 illustrates the
breakdown of the monthly care management users by care levels, which indicates that
59% of users have mild and moderate frailty (care level 1 and 2).
In 2008, care management expenditure was 4% of all total LTCI service payments.
In comparison to home help services, monthly care management benefit payments per
user were less than 20%, revealing that care management fee is relatively inexpensive.
The increase in the care management fee, paid by the LTCI fund per user, was not
significant compared to other homebound or community-based care services. In 2008,
the care management benefit per user was 116,000 JPY (916€) whereas the home help
service benefit was 635,000 JPY (5,012€) (Health and Welfare Statistics Association,
2009, p. 101). Thanks to the change of the care management system through revisions,
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the revenues of care management showed an 80% increase from between 2001 and 2008,
whereas there was a 27% decrease in home-based care expenditure. For example, the
residential care payment per user marked about 70% decrease in 7 years (Ibid., p. 107),
because of the cost containment policies for other services, introduced by the revision.
The number of providers exceeded the number of home care providers. Care
management service comprised 27,571 providers whereas home care providers were
20,948 in 2006 (Ibid., p. 77). The number of care management providers revealed
a moderate increase in number between 2000 and 2005. Figure 5.1 illustrates the
composition of care management providers by organisation. The quasi-public social
welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin) and private companies share was about 30%
and medical corporations were 20%. The share of social enterprise type services such
as providers funded by co-operative unions and non-profit providers was about 3%
respectively. Increase of the care management providers was salient between the year
2000 and 2001 but relatively stable between year 2001 and 2006 (Ibid., p. 78).
The business environment of care management providers is harsh. According to
the care provider operation survey, carried out by the Ministry of Health, Labour and
Welfare, the profit ratio with a grant subsidy worsened year-by-year: -14% in 2005 and
-17% in 2008, respectively. The profit and loss of monthly income (without a grant
subsidy) was -190,000 JPY per month and profit ratio was -28%. In 2011, with the
revision of the fee schedule, the deficit improved to about -3% (MHLW, 2011, p. 137).
With regard to the qualification of care managers, the examination pass ratio is
decreasing. In the first year, examination pass ratio was 44%: the number passed was
relatively high when 91,269 applicants were successful. The ratio of examination pass
rate gradually decreased to 21% and annual successful applicants amounted to 29,703
in 2010 as the number of care managers seemed to be saturated and the examination
started to become difficult to pass. When the variations of background professions are
considered, certified care managers who passed the examination were mostly nurses
and certified care workers, which both shared 31% respectively, whereas the proportion
of certified social workers was about 5% and social workers who used to work as
consultants 10%. Table 5.6 indicates the number of care managers by care settings. In
2010, more than 80% of care managers were working for providers of homebound care
and less than 20% in residential facilities (Health and Welfare Statistics Association,
2009, p. 93).
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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Table 5.4. Number of Care Management Users 2000, 2005, 2006, and 2008
Year
Number of care management users
(thousands)
2000
2005
2006
2008
1,488.8
2,506.1
2,041.2
1,847.0
Source: Health and Welfare Statistics Association, 2009, p. 47.
Table 5.5. Description of Monthly Care Management Users by Care Levels After the 2005
Revision, November (thousands)
Year
Total
Transitional
measure
level 1
level 2
level 3
level 4
level 5
2006
2041.2
171.2
729.9
469.4
323.1
207.9
139.7
2007
1818.8
9.9
548.5
526.7
368.6
222.2
143.0
2008
1847.0
0.4
529.5
553.0
391.4
229.9
142.8
Source: Health and Welfare Statistics Association, 2009, p. 46.
Source: MHLW, 2012b
Figure 5.1. Composition Ratio of Care Management Providers
According to the survey carried out by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare in
2010 (16,276 care managers responded), the monthly salary level of the care managers was
just below the national average of all industry but about at the same level as in the service
sector in general and social insurance/social welfare/care workers (Table 5.7). However,
it has been often pointed out that the current level of wage for care management does
not allow to develop autonomous practice in order to be independent from any private
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service providers (Ôta, 2005b). Regarding the health and welfare sector, the salary level
of care managers was higher than that of nursery staff (hoikushi) who are working for
child nursery centres, home-helpers and care workers in institutions but below nurses.
According to the Survey on Situation of Treatment of Care Workers (Kaigo jyûji-sha
shogû jyôkyô chôsa), the majority of care managers were women; the share of women
71% and only 28% were men. Over 90% of care managers work on a full-time basis. The
age composition among care managers was relatively even among age groups, whereas
aged 40 to 49 years comprised about 26%, aged 30 to 39 years 35%, and aged 50 to 59
years 26% (MHLW, 2010b). The trade union of care managers has been organised at
both local and national levels.
Table 5.6. Number of Working Care Managers Breakdown by Working Hours and Affiliation
(2010)
Care management office
Community based service providers
Ordinal LTCI
services
Preventive
services
Short-stays
Private service
houses
Working personnel actual
incl. part-time
80,155
9,038
5,968
3,555
converted to full-time
66,096
7,687
2,753
2,486
Small scale community based services
Multi-functional
services
Group homes
for elderly with
dementia
Private service
houses
Small scale nursing
homes
Working personnel actual
incl. part-time
2,406
14,444
139
342
converted to full-time
1,491
7,537
81
213
LTCI institutions
Nursing homes
Half-way houses
Medical facilities
for elderly
Working personnel actual
incl. part-time
9,728
6,956
3,051
converted to full-time
6,758
5,075
1,891
Source: MHLW, 2012a, p. 19.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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Table 5.7. Salary Level of Working Care Managers Compared with Other Sectors and
Occupations (2010)
Industries
Occupation
All
Medical sector
Social insurance, social welfare, care work
Service
Medical doctors
Nurses
Assistant nurses
Physiotherapists, Occupational therapists
Nursery staff
Care managers
Home-helpers
Care workers in the institution
Source: MHLW, 2012a, p.19
Age
41.5
39.4
40.0
43.6
39.6
37.7
46.4
30.7
34.7
45.6
41.9
37.6
Years
11.9
8.5
7.1
8.5
5.2
7.4
10.4
4.6
8.4
8.1
5.4
5.5
Salary
323.8
335.4
239.5
278.0
883.6
326.0
283.4
278.4
220.3
261.7
217.9
216.4
(Age, average: Salary monthly fixed. thousands, JPY)
Contrary to the rather positive overall evaluations based on governmental statistics, the
quality and working conditions of care managers has been continuously discussed in the
media, sparked by a number of scandals, which stimulated discussion on how to achieve
higher professional ethics among care workers. Academics in Japan started to study
how the care management functioning and their working conditions and critiques saw
institutional borders as preventing care managers from working with the complexity of
clients’ needs emerging from diverse conditions; thus services provided by the system
were seen to be insufficient.
The ethical dilemmas of care managers were studied by Okita (1999), who conducted
interviews with managers in the home-based care support centres, which were
predecessors of care management providers. Okita listed five areas of ethical dilemmas of
managers; 1) responsibility of support vs. limitation of available resources and systems,
2) client-centred approach vs. care plan operation, 3) self-determination of clients vs.
judgment of professionals, 4) support for continuing home-based care vs. deliberation
on institutionalisation because of lack of service resources to continue home-based
care, 5) personal information protection vs. information sharing among multiple
professionals. Okita concluded that ethical judgment by case managers is affected by
these five areas of dilemmas and these five areas are attributable to pressure of top down
management defined by the macro LTC policy. Later Okita (2002) carried out a study
with 34 care managers and revealed that the low degree of reflexive practice to the task
has an effect on the experience of ethical dilemma by managers. They experience more
ethical dilemmas at work with a high degree of requirements.
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Reflecting on the mismatch between the individual sense of professional calling
and the actual work required in everyday tasks, work satisfaction of care managers was
frequently studied. For example, a number of studies support that prevalence of burnout
among care managers is not identical compared to other human service workers
(Kôura, 2007) but other studies revealed that care managers’ working time exceeds that
of the average worker and not able to use time for the core care management task. Care
managers have been working prolonged hours and have more work tasks other than that
of the core case management task, which has only occupied about half of their labour
time use (Baba, 2004).
Also, the range of practice of care managers remains obscure (Ibid.). They were not
satisfied with their working environment, the level of salary, tasks and roles (Baba, 2008;
Wake, 2004). Still after the revision of the LTCI system took place in 2005, Baba (2012)
revealed that the overall working hours of care managers increased and the core care
management tasks increased by two times after the revision. Specific areas of increase
in hours included conference with service providers, which occupies about seven times
more time, monitoring, which is more than two times, and case recording over five times
more work. On the other hand, the proportion of hours used for the core tasks such as
assessment and care plan making decreased after the revision.
In addition, Ochi and Kaneko (2008) found that respondents who reported to
be willing to change their job increased after the revision (33% before and 42% after
the revision). After the revision, items in the Maslach burnout scale, namely level of
depersonalisation, emotional exhaustion increased and personal accomplishment
decreased especially among the respondents who had answered that they would like to
change their career. This result is consistent with broader survey done by the Centre for
Stabilising Care Working on 2005. According to the survey, the number of skilled care
managers was still limited (working less than 3 years of length of service was 43.7%,
less than one year was 19.7%, respectively). The turnover rate of care managers were
relatively high (16%), especially for part-timers (22.2%) (Care Work Foundation, 2005).
A number of factors were said to associate with the burnout among care managers.
First, it is associated with role ambiguities (job description and goals of the tasks), as
well as the psychological double bind situation between role expectations by supervisors
and clients to do their own jobs (Watanabe, 2002; Baba, 2008). In addition, the sense
of burnout revealed strong correlations with anxiety among care managers and their
desire to continue the job. Second, age and years of experience. Older care managers
seemed to be more resistant to heavy workloads while younger managers felt more
emotional exhaustion (Furuse, 2003); on the other hand, care managers who worked for
longer years as managers tended to show more burnout symptoms (Kôura, 2006). Third,
difference in background professions. Care managers not from a professional nursing
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
141
background were likely to show high burnout compared to nurse care managers (Furuse,
2003) and nurse care managers had more competency to deal with high medical needs
and psychiatric problems (Yoshie, Saito, Takahashi, & Kai, 2006).
Accompanied with the growth of administrative tasks and organisational pressures,
the conceptual arrangement of discretion control by care managers in Japan indicates
four standpoints in the care manager’s job features; they are bureaucrats, professionals,
employees, and residents (Hirono, 2010). Thus, the contradiction between professional
norms and expectations may have increased in the system revisions, these results revealed
that care managers in Japan are likely to possess a low sense of personal accomplishment
because the care managers’ task itself is assumed to be a source of burnout (Hosoba, 2011;
Kôura, 2007). A point of discussion has been how the professional’s ethos to take good
care of each client is compatible with the daily pressures to make a profit by efficiency and
bureaucratic role; as there has been criticism towards care managers’ actual role being
limited to the linkage of services covered by the LTCI and so-called insurance benefit
management (kyûfukanri) to comply with their administrative role (Kikuchi, 2008;
Soeda, 2008). From a social work point of view, the ‘insurance benefit management’
type of case management induces oversimplification and the standardisation of their
task to save labour through publicly determined rules, to routinise procedures for
making a file record by due date and to complete the paperwork to work with various
service providers.
One of the reasons for this narrowly implemented orientation of the care management
was pointed out that the fee for care management services has been covered only by
the LTCI fund, which delineate the activity of care management to LTCI covered roles
and consequently prevent working on other than institutional frameworks (Kikuchi,
2005). Also, the monitoring of local authorities and guidance to care managers has great
influence to their task. As discrepancies in guidance among municipalities caused by
the regularisation policy (tekiseika) always confuse clients and care managers.
Sudden changes of policy direction by the central government have also affected the
practice of care management. For example, the new idea called the positive care plan
(pojitibu-kea-puran) introduced in the 2005 revision were also criticised by experts as
they believed that it completely contradicted the idea of care management (Kikuchi,
2008). Umesaki (2004) also pointed out that care managers are facing conflicts of
interest between providers’ profits and professional ethics because care managers have
not been eligible to conduct fair and independent judgments as the system allows the
affiliation of care managers to service providers.
The knowledge base of the care management was thought to be source of the
dilemma of care managers. First, discrepancies in the content between education and
legal requirements what care managers should carry out. Umetani (2005) compared the
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contents of standard educational texts for care managers to the LTCI Act and concluded
that there were salient discrepancies between these two texts; the educational texts
presented an ideal type of care management whereas the LTCI Act did not require such
functions but stressed more administrative procedures. Second, a definition of the basic
objective to drive care management. The LTCI system strongly emphasises the notion of
autonomous living by the elderly. This emphasis on autonomy, qualitatively affects the
way how care managers make the care plans. Yûki (2008) points out that standardised
notion of autonomy has been highly influenced by the International Classification
of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) of 2001 as defined by World Health
Organization (WHO). He suggests that the narrowly defined notion of autonomy in the
ICF has affected the roles assigned to care management in Japan.
5.6 Care Management as a Tool to Implement
Changing Balance of Welfare Mix in Japan
The Japanese LTC policy changed drastically in a relatively short period of time. To cope
with the explosive increase in care needs with the new system, the Government changed
the balance of welfare mix from a residual quasi-public welfare system emphasising
institutional health care to a quasi-market service structure emphasising Japanese
version of community care, mobilising a diversity of funding and care resources to
comply with the interests of different actors involved in the system.
The prevalent way of explaining the change is that policy makers and academics
started to think of the LTC system as a specific social policy area that is needed to be
dealt with as an independent system separate from social welfare and health services
(Campbell & Ikegami, 1999). Also, the comprehensive LTC system necessitated
systematic administrative agency and consistency with other social programs, because
the general public was more accustomed to the way the system works than the system
with completely different model (Ikegami & Campbell, 2002).
To provide a sufficient amount of services for an increasingly frail elderly population,
the Japanese government introduced the quasi-market mechanisms to enhance care
service production by the private sector. Accordingly, it changed the role of municipalities
from service providers to administrators of the LTCI system. A number of problems
were identified in the process of this change. The most notable problems have been
quality issues reflecting the conflict between profit and good services, the fragmentation
of resources in the community and the high turnover rate among care workers. The
complexity and fragmentation of service provision both in regard to service types and
organisational differences, ranging from commercial business and non-profit agencies,
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required the Japanese government to introduce the new professional task called care
management as a key function of the LTCI system.
The problem with the quasi-market idea to develop a universal program was that
Japanese welfare provisions were never public. As an exception of the caseworkers who
undertake the public assistance program for income support, the private but strictly
controlled providers called social welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin) provided
the service. Moreover, as the private sector came into the welfare system, the basic idea
shifted from that of a welfare service decided by the public authorities (sochiseido) to a
contract (keiyaku) based idea. The Japanese government faced with the dilemma because
the Japanese LTCI system does not allow for a cash benefit. If the insured could not use
the service, then the LTCI system would fail to function as social insurance. Thus, there
was a necessary condition to introduce the key-workers who take face-to-face contacts
with clients, ‘Japanese policy-makers were worried that clients would have a hard time
choosing and coordinating services’ (Ikegami & Campbell, 2002, p. 728).
Japanese care management is learned but amended to embody the Japanese
paradigm of care management. Care managers are composed of different kinds of
professionals working in commercial business, non-profits or quasi-public organisation
(shakaifukushi-hôjin) to deal with the Japanese quasi-market LTCI provision. By the
professional realignment to adapt to the quasi-market idea, care managers are expected
to work in both public and private offices including non-profit organisations with
one-week minimum education. Also, care managers in Japan have multiple functions
ranging from social work and administrative functions, making a bridge between
providers and clients, to checking the amount of payments for providers.
The care management system provisioned in the LTCI has been criticised because it
has been too focused on plan making, adjustment and benefit management, including
administrative tasks of the system of the services but lacking social work tasks.
Basically, a series of critical interpretations on care management by social work scholars
differentiated two types of care management. The care management provisioned in the
LTCI system could be called narrowly-defined care management whereas the alternative
is a broadly-defined version of care management representing there are tensions between
the institutional and the normative definitions of care management. On the other hand,
ideal care managers are required to design care plans making full use of available
resources in the community, but as a reality, the institutional and organisational
limitations require both care managers and service providers to consider minimum sets
of service packages just covered by the LTCI and market frameworks.
The ambiguity of roles is thought to be a factor affecting case managers’ job satisfaction
and burnout. The structural element of Japanese care management, namely without
purchaser-provider split, care managers in Japan were allowed to purchase services from
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their own organisation. This increased their ethical anxiety. A study reviewed in this
chapter revealed that managers were working in a stressful environment attributable
to their conflicting role reflecting social norms. These norms were partly decoupled
between an ideal type of care management presented by social work scholars and the
role defined by the law. These elements, ideal and legal models of care management,
organisational and life domain seemingly affect the professional decision-making
process by managers because the situation of managers as operators to contribute
both to efficient service management and professional objectives with expertise puts
managers in a difficult situation. Under the multiple roles assigned, they try to make
sense of their work between different tasks and pressures.
During the policy reform, many concepts are learned and emulated from policies
developed in other nations but it is largely unknown how the policy learning brought
about by the LTC policy reform affects the implementation of care management. It is
an empirical question, how new idea which had learned and what kind of specificity
remaining from the past eldercare policy in Japan affects the care management in
the implementation. For example, the policy concept known as the comprehensive
community care (chîki-hôkatsu-kea) policy is an idea derived from community care
idea developed in UK. Takegawa (2006) points out that the English term community
care and Japanese term chîki-fukushi are qualitatively different. Thus, instead of using
directly imported term community care. Takegawa considers using community-based
welfare for the translation of chîki-fukushi (p. 43). Another example is the concepts of
‘case management’ and the ‘care management’ describing the emulation of concepts
and working method which were translated and applied in the Japanese development
of care management. Through this process, it has become apparent that implementing
Japanese paradigm of care management not only affected by the sheer increase in the
number of clients but also by the history, culture and national political atmosphere of
countries on its own.
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6 THE TASKS OF CARE MANAGEMENT
In this chapter, I analyse the tasks of care management as narrated by care managers.
The actual analysis deals with the following three questions, which are addressed
consecutively. In the first section, I show how care managers’ narratives define ‘care
management’. In the second section, I illustrate how the roles of care managers are
presented. In the final section, I present how care management is accomplished in
practice.
6.1 Central Tasks of Care Management
Most of the care managers I have interviewed viewed ‘care management’ as indirect
personal service to support clients’ everyday life with human dignity by utilising
multidisciplinary knowledge and a variety of resources, balancing between business and
administrative requirements as well as human service expertise.
This definition was commonly narrated because care management work is taught in
the way that it requires a holistic approach to understand and treat the client’s physical
and social relationships as a whole. As a result, this work includes everyday living tasks
by caring for people who are heading towards end-of-life. The variations of tasks require
a wide-range of knowledge of social to health and medical care. The realm of their work is
independent and each care manager defines what they should do for clients as otherwise
defined in the law. For example, a former local administration employee who worked
as a caseworker compared her current care management task to case management. She
recalled when she was a caseworker, it meant that she was backed up by the full support
of colleagues. As care managers, on the other hand, have to work on their own.
First, I constructed the thematic category called definition and expertise of care
management. This category consists of 208 narrative sections in total comprised
from five topics: care in general (10), needs (13), definition of care management (18),
clients (24), and expertise (143) (see Chapter 3.4.3, p.79). I have analysed these topics
and extracted following four themes; subject and objectives of work, characters of work,
practices, realms and boundaries of care management.
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The subject and objectives of work, the first of the four dimensions, is mentioned in the
following way: subjects of the work for them are referred to as clients, customers, elderly
authorised to use LTCI services, dying patients, family carers of elderly authorised to
use LTCI services, service providers, and caseworkers of local authorities. Interestingly,
providers were thought to be subjects of care management. Stories of the routine work
to check the service given by other providers of the LTCI services are quite common in
the talk of care managers. Similarly, relationships between local authorities quite often
appeared in the narratives.
The characters of work are mentioned as the multiple goals pursued for clients,
organisational profit and public demand, working in a closed world with clients,
no physical contact with clients, routinised and non-routine work, individualised
background work, difficulties to standardise and the need for supervision or work in
teams.
The practices of care management are about doing the care management. This
dimension includes a story of numerous practices. Namely these practices of care
managers are narrated as controller of the airport, team leader, salesman for making
arrangements to stay in their homes, a person who does messy clerical work, taking
social action to achieve objectives to help institutionalised and elderly living in the
community.
One of the central tasks of care management is consultation (sôdan-gyômu). This
task, in Japanese, has the connotation of a role to listen to the clients. The importance
of this task is largely described as a social work based task. Because the task locates the
client’s voice in the centre, care managers have to take the lead to arrange whatever
kinds of issues are pressing, mostly those concerning livelihood and family matters.
The metaphors of Jack-of-all-trades (nandemoya) and arrangement (ozendate) are often
used to represent the coordination and liaison tasks as such. On the other hand, the
control tower of the airport metaphor is used in connection with terminal patients
to control chronic conditions so that they can die peacefully at home. The metaphor
is one of coordination tasks similar to the arrangement/table setting just mentioned,
but I regard it qualitatively different. The control tower of the airport metaphor has
more high technology and complex nuances, even if it sounds catastrophic if one of the
functions surrounding the aircraft fails. It has a nuance that all parties participating in
this arrangement are interested in the physical objective conditions of patients to safely
end their life at home.
Further, care managers working at non-profit organisations have the tendency to
express another one of the important practices of care management of brokerage which
I interpret as a metaphor of a being dumped (hôrinagerarereta) role. The term being
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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dumped has the connotation of delegation as their endless task, even including the
voluntary work to supplement public sector to community work.
6.2 Variations Among the Roles of Care Management
The analysis represented that the tasks they provide were regarded as ambiguous and
they found it difficult to identify relevant practices of care managers. Care managers
engage in a wide variety of roles when they practice. Their stories of roles can be
classified into following three-task stories: expertise, entrepreneur, and bureaucratic/
administrative stories. In the following, I explain the specifics of each narrative type. In
my data, the story representing the ‘role of an expert’ was the most common one.
6.2.1
The role as an expert
These narratives concern the family and social matters along with coordination and
liaison roles. Care managers often expressed their main task as a term chôsei, literarily
coordination in English. The coordination role is regarded as a core function of care
managers. Notably, there are also other meanings in English; alignment, conditioning,
control, coordination, fix, fixing, rectification, regulation. Coordination requires a
standpoint and target, but does not provide a direct hand in services. Thus, the use of
the term coordination has a connotation that the task is indirect. Moreover, narratives
about clients often include social and family issues to be taken into account. This social
aspects lead to the issue of community when advocacy and community development
issues occur in the narratives. As the elderly commonly face chronic disease and must
encounter services at the end of their life, narratives on terminal care and the issue of
coordination with medical care was also prevalent in the interviews.
The consultation task (sôdan gyômu) is the role especially regarded as central to social
work based care managers. It represents care managers’ role to ask and listen to their
clients. One of terms representing such a role is Jack-of-all-trades (nandemoya). Care
managers regard some of the tasks as not statutory but voluntary. Voluntary tasks are
often spoken of advocacy and community leadership to enhance citizen participation,
and to express the ideal of ‘care management’ in relation to social work theories such
as community work and casework. The term advocate (daibensha) has been used to
express the mediator role of linking needs of clients to services available. In addition, I
have categorised the narrative of negotiation with other parties for a particular person
or things into advocacy narrative.
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Masaya Shimmei
The narrative of advocacy is also related with the democratic implementation of
the system. It is suggesting that ideal bottom-up approach to the implementation is
necessary to fill the gaps of government and market failures. These stories deliberately
reflect the common discourse in the current welfare mix approach such as the private,
especially non-profits, service organisations supplement the government to balance the
care mix in the community.
6.2.2 The role as an entrepreneur
The category represents the different roles of care managers as sales agents. This role
advocates doing anything for clients. The number of cases that care managers handle is
crucial in terms of profit making, service quality and workload. Narratives concerned
with management, especially with attention paid to the revenue of organisations to
which they belong.
Care managers have to think about taking a number of cases. This is because monthly
benefit payment for care management is fixed per client; care managers earn 4,500 JPY
(36 €) a month per person when contracted to make care plans. The law limits the cases
to 35 clients, adding four clients for preventive service users, which makes 39 clients,
maximum. Before the 2005 revision, the number of upper limit was 50 clients. In term
of utilising the services of affiliated firms, the government set a penalty if the service use
of clients by own firms exceeds 70% of total services.
The crucial institutional limitation which care managers encounter is that the care
management fee is issued only when clients use at least one of the services covered
by the LTCI. If clients did not use any of the services covered, the care manager’s
consultation work ends with no fee income. The number of cases represents revenues as
well as workload. In the narrative of care managers, 11 care managers used the term in a
colloquial way to refer to the customer (okyakusan), instead of care recipients (riyôsha),
suggesting that care managers demarcate their clients according to situation they try to
explain. Thus, because of the institutional limitation given, it is also difficult to balance
organisational and clients’ merits.
6.2.3 The role as a bureaucrat
Care managers are regarded as front-line workers implementing the LTCI system in
practice. Represented in a story of care managers as a a person doing tiresome clerical
work (mendokusai jimusagyô wo suru hito) and drawing a line (oriai wo tsukeru) in
everyday life to provide available services, this represents care managers defining and
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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standardising the life of clients to exemplify how the administrative roles of the LTCI
system is delegated to care managers working in the private sector. The boundaries
between local authorities and the bureaucratic roles taken by care managers are
somewhat prevalent in the themes.
One of the statutory tasks of care managers is the so-called benefit management
(kyûfukanri), a routine task in which care managers have to deal with actual care service
providers. Care managers compare their care records with those of care providers and
ask care providers to amend records if any discrepancies are observed. After checking
the amount of service used by each client, the specified documents are electronically sent
to the Federation of National Health Insurance Associations. This type of function was
initially regarded as peripheral to care management but it is a burdensome amount of
work since if this function does not go well, the payment from the fund to care providers
is delayed, which can seriously affect the operation of care providers.
As I have asked care managers about the relationship between care managers and
case managers who operate income support for impoverished elderly, speakers replied
that frequently caseworkers inquired about the situation of elderly clients to care
managers. The imbalance of knowledge about clients’ conditions occurs because the
LTCI statute sets requirements for care managers to visit clients at least once a month
whereas case managers working in the local authorities have more discretion to decide
what to do. Because of the very nature of care services and institutional constraints,
care mangers are required to follow clients’ daily situation more than case managers;
in order to accomplish the tasks, case managers employed by the municipality need
information from care managers who work for private and non-profit organisations.
Another bureaucratic role is directly connected to the implementation of the LTCI
system. Care managers speak about their role to explain the LTCI system because the
LTCI system has changed radically with the frequent revisions. One of the hardest
things for care managers is to explain home help service cut with clients living together
with family carers because of the regularisation (tekiseika) policy, a national guideline
to curtail service expenditure in order to stabilise increasing LTCI expenditure. In this
regard, care managers are expected to explain and educate clients to meet the frequently
changing LTC policies.
6.3 Variations in Care Management Practices
I now focus on how care managers express their roles in the storytelling. In the
interview data I found the following four metaphors that expressed the practices in
which they engage. These are thought to have high relevance to answer why and how
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care managers are put under pressure to cope with the multiple roles and multifaceted
clients assigned to them. The following metaphors are used to express the practices of
the ‘care management’ in the interview data. These are what I have called a Jack-ofall-trades, an errand boy, a control tower of the airport, table setting and a street-level
leadership metaphors.
6.3.1Jack-of-all-trades
Mrs. Okayama’s excerpt (transcript 6a) is a good example of detecting the metaphor
which I have termed Jack-of-all-trades. The term nandemoya, meaning Jack-of-alltrades, appeared in interviews with 4 of the 17 interviewed care managers. Jack-ofall-trades, according to the Collins English Dictionary, is ‘a person who undertakes
many different kind of work’ (Makins & Hanks, 1992, p. 824). The term has the
negative connotation that if someone is said to be an all-rounder, he/she are regarded
as a specialist of nothing. Interestingly, just as the English proverb ‘Jack-of-all-trades,
master of none’ so does the same connotation exist in the Japanese proverb tagei wa
mugei (多芸は無芸). Mrs. Okayama used the term to make sense of her experience of
fruitless negotiation with providers about clients’ demands, which are not written in the
rules of the service use. Interestingly, Mrs. Okayama used the term ozendate, a common
Japanese word meaning arrangement in wider context.
Transcript 6a. Care manager as Jack-of-all-trades
[Origninal Japanese]
Interviewer: What kind of cumbersome office
work?
Okayama (wife): Making an application, searching
services or giving information… that would
be too much work for family members to
do individually if they want to find the best
service for the patient from so many choices.
(Care managers) will do these for them.
Instead of the family members having to check
with providers, care managers will let them
know on which days services are available and
arrange everything for them.
<Skip>
Okayama (wife): I don’t mean to show off my
professionalism, but I also need them to
understand that I am not a handyperson. I’m
the type of person who can easily become a
handyperson. So, people often say I’m not cut
out for a care manager.
聞き手：どういう面倒くさい事務作業を。
岡山（夫人）：申請とかサービスを調べるとか情報提供
をするとかって、結構膨大な中からこの人に合った
サービスって思うと、かなり、家族が一個一個当た
っていくには面倒な作業ですよね、それをやってく
れる。自分が行かなくても何曜日に空きがあります
よとか、全部を設定してくれてお膳立てをしてくれ
て。
＜途中略＞
岡山（夫人）：どっかで専門性を見せつけるじゃないけ
れども、この人は何でも屋じゃないんだっていうとこ
ろも持っててもらわなきゃいけない。わたしは何で
も屋になっちゃうタイプ。だから、あまりケアマネに
は向いてないって、よく言われます。
聞き手：うーん。
岡山（夫人）：研修とかでもそう、何でも屋にはならない
でくださいねって。
聞き手：何でも屋じゃない人は、どういう人なの。
岡山（夫人）：そうやって、ここまではケアマネとしての
領域ですけど、こっから先は違いますよっていう線
引きを、ある程度はちゃんとしてください。
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
151
Interviewer: Hmmm.
Okayama (wife): Instructors also say during
training that you shouldn’t become a
handyperson.
Interviewer: If you are not a handyperson, what
kind of person will you be?
Okayama (wife): Like…please draw the line
somewhere, between your job as a care
manager and something beyond that.
Interviewer: Who will take care of those things
beyond the line?
Okayama (wife): Those things, you may need to
discuss with family members.
Interviewer: Oh.
Okayama (wife): Yes. You have to draw the line
somewhere. So, instructors sometimes say at
training, ‘We shouldn’t let service users think
that care managers will do anything if they
ask.
聞き手：こっから先は、誰と誰がやるのでしょうか。
岡山（夫人）：それは、家族で話し合わなきゃいけない
ことも出てくるし。
聞き手：ああ。
岡山（夫人）：うん。どっかで折り合いをつけなきゃいけ
ないし、だから、ケアマネに言えば何でもしてくれる
って思われないようにっていうのは、たまに研修で
言われますね。
During the interview, Mrs. Okayama had spoken so cynically about the practice of care
management. I could only follow her story, trying not to miss the important words.
The Jack-of-all-trades metaphor represents the chaotic situation a generalist in social
work with little technical expertise faces. The negative connotation of the term reflects
a sense of helplessness by the care manager whose background profession is in social
work, searching for a professional identity and reflecting a cry for clearly defined work.
As ‘care management’ has been relegated to convey multiple tasks, especially both
bureaucratic clerical tasks and providing support for the daily living of clients with
health problems and disability. Hence the talk of Jack-of- al-trades, I realised that they
cynically told their stories with bitter smiles.
After declaring that their work was a Jack-of-all-trades, care managers with a
background in social and care work seemed to regard their task as dispersing the system
and being centred in the system. In other words, care manager is a key person to support
the community care policy but also having to compromise with something (oriai wo
tsukeru). According to Kôjien, a major Japanese dictionary published by Iwanami, oriau
(折合う) denotes finding solutions between conflicting parties through compromise. In
this context, care managers make a compromise among the assignments of their work
in order to avoid being a Jack-of-all-trades.
As Mrs. Okayama expressed the negative perceptions of generalist care managers,
she located herself in the spoken context of practice as she had been told labelled
that she is the first person to become a Jack-of-all-trades care manager. From this
ambivalent attitude toward care management practices, I felt that care managers were
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Masaya Shimmei
strictly controlled by the statutory rules but were also relatively free to do extra work,
such as counselling. Care managers are forced to draw a line between these actual and
normative practices.
6.3.2 Errand boy of the local authority
Care managers often substitute for the role of caseworkers. In the following transcript
6b, the care manager see herself as an errand boy (tsukaipashiri) to compensate for
caseworkers working in local authorities. In Japanese, tsukaipashiri means an act to goaround here and there to comply with an order given by a certain person. The metaphor
expresses an informal delegation of public work to care managers.
This excerpt has the structure of normative and actual care management. Also,
the narratives of care managers are structured around the hierarchy between public
authorities and the private sector indicating that the private sector is likely to carry out
informal subcontracting bureaucratic work.
Transcript 6b. Care manager as an errand boy
Kaneda: Really, as the job of a care manager… what
can I say… you learn that your job is to link
service users and providers. You understand
the whole picture and all, and that’s how you
learn… like, what it is like to be a care manager.
That’s how I take it, but…
Interviewer: What is it like for you?
Kaneda: It is actually like that… it is. When
families are there, they would follow up on
things. But as I speak with care managers
in other organisations, the entire care
management system is like… When there was
no care management system, caseworkers did
all the work for people on public assistance.
Interviewer: Yes.
Kaneda: Half of these caseworkers’ job is public.
And when we have service users, particularly
those who are living alone, those with families
living far away or those on public assistance,
caseworkers wouldn’t do anything anymore.
Kaneda: When we contact these caseworkers, they
would say ‘It’s your job, isn’t it?’ So, I sometimes
feel like we are becoming like errand boys,
who do things for casework. It’s not the matter
of whether I like it or hate it. Maybe, what I’m
saying doesn’t make sense.
[Origninal Japanese]
金田：本当に、ケアマネの仕事として、なんというか、勉
強の上で言われてるのは、利用者とサービス事業所
とをつなぐ、つないだり。全体を把握してて、そうい
う形ででは勉強はします、ケアマネとはっていうとこ
ろで・・・とは思ってるけど。
聞き手：金田さんとしてはどうですか
金田：実際にそうなんです、実際はそうやけども、実際
それであって、どっちかといったら、家族さんが一
緒にいてはるところは家族さんがちゃんとフォロー
してくれはるけども、ケアマネ、今の全体的なケア
マネというシステム自体が、他の事業所さんのケア
マネジャーとも話すのですけど、それまで、ケアマネ
という制度がないときには、生活保護とかそういう
人達は、みんなケースワーカーさんの仕事やったん
です。
聞き手：はい。
金田：そのケースワーカーの仕事の半分は公的なものっ
ていうのを、特に家族さんが遠方とか、独居とか、
生活保護の人とかって、そういうのを担当するとす
ごく、ケースワーカーさんは動いてくれへんし。
金田：私らが連絡とっても、あなたの仕事でしょっていう
感じになるところもあるし、だからケースワーカーさ
んの代行的な、ぱしり的なところもでてきたなって
ところも感じます。それが嫌とか好きとかじゃなく。
なんか、言ってることがなんか、おかしいかもわか
らないですけど。
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153
During the interview, I asked Mrs. Kaneda about the practices of care managers. Then
she answered how you learn to be care managers, then I asked her what is it like for
you to be care manager, then she started talking actual care management practice,
substituting for the role of case managers. She expressed her ambiguous role between
statutory work and informally delegated work by caseworkers, who were working in
local authorities as using the word pashiri, the abbreviation of tsukai hashiri, meaning
an errand boy or gofer with a derogative-connotation.
The informal delegation or mobilising by local authorities to collect information for
the caseworkers was a popularly narrated theme. Quite a large number of elderly clients
are both the beneficiaries of a means-tested income support system and the LTCI service.
Both systems are operated in different sections where the front-line workers for income
support program (seikatsuhogo-seido) are local officials called caseworkers (kêsu-wâkâ)
which is different from care managers. The LTCI is more recent institution introduced
in 2000, where the public income support called seikatsuhogo is one of the earliest social
security legislative acts when the Public Assistance Act of 1951 was inaugurated. These
two social institutions have been administered by different departments in the Ministry
of Health, Labour and Welfare: The Social Welfare and War Victims’ Relief Bureau
administers the Public Assistance Act whereas the Health and Welfare Bureau for the
Elderly oversees the LTCI system.
This metaphor stands for two apparent reflections of Japanese social policy. The first
reflection is the hierarchical relationship between the local authorities and care managers
working in the private sector. The second is the vertically segmented administrative
system in the current Japanese social policy administration. The two front-line workers,
namely caseworkers and the care managers work in different programs with different
types of oversight. Scrutinising the story from an administration point of view, it is
interesting to compare the narrative of a former caseworker and now a care manager,
Mrs. Ito, retrospectively interpreted this situation as care managers do not have any
power and authority because of working in the private sector and as a result care
managers are regarded as untrustworthy by the public authorities who consider the
private sector as a subject of control.
Although the care managers working in the private sector were regarded as a subject
to be monitored by the local authorities, they are mobilised to substitute for public
roles designated by local authorities through different legislation. The work of the care
managers is strictly controlled by the LTCI legislation. Care managers have less discretion
available because most of them are affiliated to the private sector. The ambiguous nature
of their work, which ranges from doing the LTCI defined task to informally contractedout work, is also consolidated by a vertically segmented administrative system in Japan.
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Masaya Shimmei
6.3.3 Control tower of the airport
The transcript 6c listed below is from Mrs. Harada’s interview. She has a background
in nursing. She used the metaphor of an airliner and a traffic controller (kanseikan) or
control tower (kanseitô), at the airport to explain care management. A traffic controller
needs to watch and commands the control tower with some sort of discretion. Using
a captain-passenger metaphor, she expresses that not only professionals in the clinical
field, but a number of multi-professional have to be harmonised. The commonalities
of these narratives are that coordination as a practice must have a definite objective to
coordinate for accomplishing it.
Transcript 6c. Care manager as a control tower in the terminal care settings
[Origninal Japanese]
Harada: Sure, there are so many kinds of people,
whether they are doctors, nurses or homehelpers. But there’s someone like a conning
tower.
Interviewer: Hmmm.
Harada: I really hate the word ‘conning tower.’ But,
well… I don’t mean to give orders all the time.
I heard that Prefecture A trained workers,
saying that care managers are like conning
towers. But I sometimes say that care managers
are more like air traffic controllers rather than
conning towers.
Interviewer: Yeah.
Harada: The point is, care managers’ job is to lead
service users during take-off, meaning when
they start to use long-term care insurance
services, and landing, which means when
they’re facing death. During the smooth flight,
all we have to do is monitoring. We do have to
move immediately if pilots, in this case service
managers, or passengers, meaning service
users including family members and care
recipients, send SOS signals to a control tower.
So, if everything is going fine, we just keep eyes
on the situation. If we receive SOS signals, we
move quickly.
Interviewer: Yes.
Harada: Yes. And a control tower has a huge role
during take-off and landing. I don’t know
much about airplanes, but I think a captain
can’t even land a plane without a control
tower’s great orders.
Interviewer: Yes, that’s true, yes.
Harada: Now, I think that care managers’ job is to
focus on management in that part.
原田　：確かにお医者さんだって看護婦さんだってヘル
パーさんだって、いろんな人がいるわけですけれど
も、やっぱりその指令塔であるね。
聞き手：うーん。
原田　：指令塔っていう言葉は大っ嫌いなんですけど、
わたしは。わたしは、うーん、常時指令をするつもり
はないんだけど、A県はどうもケアマネは指令塔だ
って教育をしたっていう話も聞くんですけど、あた
しは指令塔じゃなくてね、あたしは時々話をするの
に、飛行機で例えるなら管制官かもしれないって言
ったんです。
聞き手：ああー。
原田　：要するに、介護保険を使い始める離陸のとき
と、死を迎える着陸のときをどれだけ誘導できるか
っていうところで、ぱっと安定飛行している間は、そ
の中のパイロットであるサービス担当責任者の人た
ちだとか乗っているお客さま、要するにご家族であ
ったりご本人だったりからSOSが管制塔に来たとき
は即動かなきゃいけないけど、それの間は、ただ順
調飛行してるというふうに黙って見てればいいわけ
であって、うん。ああ、順調なんだなっていうのを見
守って、向こうからSOSが来たら、もうフットワークよ
く動く。
聞き手：うん。
原田：うん。そして、やっぱり離着陸のときは管制塔の役
割ってすごい、あたしは飛行機の世界よく分かんな
いけど、多分あれはすごい指令がないと、機長も降
りられないんだと思いますので。
聞き手：うん、そうですね。うん。
原田　：そこのところだけをしっかりマネジメントするの
がケアマネの役割かなって思ってるんですね、今。
聞き手：うーん、なるほど。
原田　：だから、ほんとに介護保険をお使いになられ
るとき、これが退院であろうとも、ご自身で具合が
悪くて出されたとき、介護保険スタートと介護保険
の終わり、要するに亡くなるというとき。ここができ
るケアマネを育てないと、真ん中はね、落ち着いて
たりすればね、ケアマネなんか出てかなくても、ヘ
ルパーさんと訪問看護師さんとデイとかいろんなも
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
155
Interviewer: Hmm, I see.
Harada: So, when we train care managers, we need
to focus on the beginning; that is, when people
start using long-term care insurance services
whether because of discharge from a hospital
or because of declining health; and the end,
meaning when people are dying. Everything in
between, as far as things are going smoothly,
you don’t need a care manager. If people use
various services like home-helpers, visiting
nurses and day care centres, our job is to watch
over the situation and care recipients unless
they have claims and/or problems. If there
is a problem, someone will definitely let us
know. So, until that happens, we quietly keep
our eyes on the situation from far. If people
can take care of themselves, they should do
it. For example, if home-helpers can work on
the situation, they should do it. Otherwise,
they can’t improve their quality. As long as
we have information on the situation, I think
we, care managers, shouldn’t stick our noses
into their business. Hmmm, well. I seem to
use airplanes as an example all the time, but
let’s say passengers are our customers. First,
home-helpers take care of them like cabin
attendants. If things are fine, we can leave
things to home-helpers. Customers with more
severe needs are like first-class passengers.
They may need additional care, like long-term
care and medical care. Then we provide them
with extra services.
Interviewer: Yes.
Harada: So… but even then, we can leave things
to visiting nurses and home-helpers if they
can take care of the situation. But if they are in
trouble, they will go to someone like a co-pilot,
won’t they?
Interviewer: Yes.
Harada: Then, when the plane itself gets shaky,
they will definitely contact a control tower. Uh,
that’s when we… But until then…That’s what
my care plans are like right now.
<Skip>
Harada: Then, I get requests from terminal patients.
When the person is referred by a hospital, we
know the end is near. So, the beginning and
ending come at the same time.
Interviewer: Yes.
Harada: When we start services, we also need
to talk about the ending. But 8 years is the
longest I have had with a service user. So, when
156
のを使ってれば、あとは、こうーちょっと遠くから眺
めてて、ご本人たちの様子も眺めてて、苦情とか問
題が起きなければ、問題が起きれば誰かが必ず言
ってくるわけですから、問題が起きないまでは黙っ
て見てて、そいで自分たちで解決できることは、ヘル
パーはヘルパーで解決してもらわなきゃ、そこの資
質も上がってかないわけですから、その情報だけ
がある程度来てれば、何らあたしはね、そーんなあ
たしたちがしゃしゃ、あたしがしゃしゃり出ることは
ないだろうって思ってるので、うーん、だから、うん。
いつも飛行機に例えるんですが、乗客がお客さま
であった、我々のお客さまなら、まずヘルパーとい
うスチュワーデスがお世話して、それで何でもなけ
ればヘルパーに任しとけばいいし、ちょっと重たい
人とか、ハイソのひ、まあハイソのファーストクラス
の人をね、介護保険、医療が必要な人だとするんで
あれば、そこにはちょっと濃厚なサービスが必要な
んで、それなりのね、ファーストクラスにいる人は重
たい人。
聞き手：うん。
原田　：だから、でも、それでも訪看、訪問看護とヘル
パーとでやりくりできるならそのまんまほっといて、
でも、困ると必ず副パイロットや何かのところに、
あの人たちも何か行くわけじゃないですか。
聞き手：うん。
原田　：それで、飛行機そのもの全体ががたがたしだ
したら、絶対に管制塔に来るわけでね。うん、うー
ん、そのときはそれですけどねー。それまではねー
っていうのが、あたしの今のケアプランのあり方な
んです。
＜途中略＞
原田　：で、末期の方とかでご依頼が来る。病院からの
ご依頼とかで来るときは、もう終わりが分かってま
すので、最初も最後も一緒くたに来るんですね。
聞き手：うん。
原田　：最初に始まるときに終わりの話もしなきゃいけ
ないという。でも、長いお付き合いの方でも、８年。
介護保険からの方たちの中に、やっぱりもう認知で
落ちてきて、そろそろかなって思ったときには、そう
いう看取りをどうなさいますかっていう話を徐々に
していく時期が来たなっていうのを見極めてご家族
にしていきますし、アップダウンがどうしてもあるん
ですよね。
聞き手：うーん。
原田　：入院、調子がいいときは調子がいいんだけど、
入院してがくーって落ちたときは、これをどこまで
落とさないで、早く元に戻すかっていう、ここのとこ
ろのちっちゃなときも、その管制塔は動かなきゃい
けないんですね。こっちはものすごいおっきな動
き。だって、飛行機炎上、衝突しても困るわけだから
（笑）。
聞き手：うーん。
Masaya Shimmei
patients’ cognitive function declines and I feel
like it’s about time, I start talking with their
families about end-of-life care, asking what
they like to do. Patients have ups and downs,
you know.
Interviewer: Hmmm.
Harada: When patients are in good condition, they
are really good. But when they are hospitalised
and their function goes way down, the control
tower also needs to do its jobs, like how to
prevent further deterioration and how to
recover their health, no matter how small the
situation may seem. It is a big deal, because
you don’t want the plane to burst into flames
or crash (laugh).
Interviewer: Hmmm.
Harada: That’s a control tower’s job. But for minor
bumps…at an airport, sometimes a plane has,
what is it called… a bumpy landing. That’s
when a care manager’s work is critical, to fix
the problem quickly. To be honest, hospitalised
patients have nothing to do with care managers
anymore, really.
原田　：やんなきゃいけないわけでね、管制塔って。で
も、ちっちゃな揺れとかがあったときにね、うん。エ
アポートに、あのー、何だっけ、どすんときたとか、
そういうのが来たら、そのときは早く元に戻してやる
ためのケアマネの動きっていうのは、めっちゃくち
ゃ肝心で、それを入院したからっていって、もう関係
ないわけですよ、入院すると、ほんとのこといって、
ケアマネっていうのは。
The control tower metaphor was developed to explain care management in relation to
the chronic health condition of patients, especially in terms of terminal care settings.
The degree of severity is expressed using the term first class passengers who need
intensive services. The term cabin crew stands for care-workers, captains and co-pilots
are regarded as doctors, although clearly not articulated in the speech. Among these
actors, care managers are the control tower.
The speaker emphasised the importance of the control tower that expressing that
even captains cannot be allowed to land without control tower’s approval. This suggests
that the work of care manager for a nurse is the way to disengage from medical doctors’
control. This sense making is consonant with the different interview with the medical
doctor, indicating that nowadays quite a number of nurses prefer working in LTCI-related
facilities because of their advantageous position compared to care and social workers.
The speaker also implies that the context of home terminal care is an important aspect
of ‘care management’ and nurse care managers can contribute with certain discretion
to convey home terminal care. As a health care expert, the speaker understands that
the care of dying people could be systematically organised if properly handled, by the
intentional use of modern technology. The speaker expressed the technology by using a
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
157
metaphor such as aircrafts and airports. In the terminal setting, the final goal is a safety
landing which represents dying at home safely.
While talking with Mrs. Harada, I was mostly all ears listening to the way she talked
because she had such an insightful view on the limitations of the LTCI as a system.
The information was interesting to me but I had to acknowledge her standardising
and systematic way of expressing the practice of care management. In the last line
of the excerpt, she said: ‘To be honest, hospitalised patients have nothing to do with
care managers anymore, really’. This apparently indicates that the care managers and
service providers cannot relate, in other words, cannot make any profit if the client is
hospitalised as the LTCI covers only the community-based care, not in the hospital.
Thus, for community-based care providers, it is more rational to keep the clients at
home as it is more profitable in terms of the management of the company.
During the course of the interviews, I started to understand one of the reasons
why social workers and care workers circumvent making networks and exchanging
information with medical doctors. Supposedly, it is related to the difficulties in
understanding medical terms and logic because the situation is so different from their
daily work. For example, quite often, medical doctors do not participate in the statutory
care conference, which delegates to the care manager the role of organising such care
conferences.
How medicine is considered in Japan can be revealed in history, which implies
that medical services are regarded as more reliable and less stigmatised services than
social services. There is a perception in Japan that using social services is not acceptable
because once one were taken into care by a public authority, it is regarded as a shame,
thus, as a result, people turn more to medical services. In Japanese, okami no sewa ni
naru (お上の世話になる) is a commonly used sentence to express sense of disgrace if
one were taken into the custody of public authorities.
Sekentei is one of the causes that forces people make this kind of choice. The attitude
towards medical and social service have regional differences in service use. Basically,
three or more generational families are prevalent in rural areas which prefer out-ofhouse services and also the use of medical institutions because of what Japanese call
sekentei. According to Asai, Kameoka, & Velma (2005), the term sekentei is defined as
‘social appearance, reputation, or dignity in the community or public’, which has both
positive and negative connotations. It is the social forces that make people act certain
way. Yamamoto (1992) points out how seken, meaning society, community and the
public in Japanese, acts as a social pressure to force uniformity. This idea of residents in
the rural area consolidates behaviors to avoid shame or humiliation or being labelled as
wrong-doers by neighbors as they are not performing care based on familial piety, which
makes them use more hospitals or medical facilities as they are less stigmatised. The
158
Masaya Shimmei
other reason is that most of the non-medical care managers have a strong recognition
that medical facilities are more secure because medical facilities are well-equipped and
offer eyes on a client for 24 hours a day. In the urban area, in contrast, the elderly are
living in more nuclear family household where single or married-couple household are
more common. Their service use pattern is more likely to use in-home care (Campbell
& Nishimura, 2010).
Under such circumstances, nurse care managers often talk about their experience
in working in hospitals and regarded dying in the hospital is the worst way to end life.
Thus, nurse care managers assess the role of care management when they succeed in
making clients stay in their house when clients have an incurable disease or terminal
phases. In contrast, care managers with backgrounds other than medicine and health
care show passive avoidance behaviour to relate oneself to the care situation with even
moderate health services.
6.3.4
Street-level leadership as delegation
The metaphor of a being dumped (hôrinagerarereta) role represents how care managers
are taking over the role of the public sector in areas such as developing service
provisions in the community, advocacy and engaging in the administration of the LTCI
implementation. The transcript 6d is an excerpt from care managers working in nonprofit organisations representing emerging social work as well as advocacy work from
the private sector.
Mrs. Ômori’s narrative represents the care managers’ role to negotiate not to
circumvent and to draw a line while crossing the boundaries to connect diverse
disciplines for clients. The speaker reported extra work which is not counted as the
statutory work assigned to the care manager. Here she talks of negotiating with primary
care doctors to inquire about documents for an eligibility test. Hence, as a care manager,
the speaker regards the eligibility test is insufficient to reflect the actual needs of the
care needy, as a person in charge, she tries to reflect the situation, not circumventing the
expertise, but rather to actively take a role as negotiator, actualising an advocacy role.
The speaker sees the act of negotiation with related parties in the LTCI as a resource
developing process, stressing developing network resources in the community.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
159
Transcript 6d. Care manager as a negotiator for a client
[Origninal Japanese]
Ômori: One of the things is that clients don’t
want to use (services). When you said the full
benefit, you meant up to the limit, correct?
Interviewer: That is right.
Ômori: I don’t think assessment for the need
certification is looking at what is really
necessary, and it depends on the case. On the
other hand, I do appeal to a doctor to raise the
care level one way or another if a patient needs
more services than what the certification
allows.
Interviewer: When a patient needs more services?
Ômori: Yes.
Interviewer: You wouldn’t get extra points for that,
correct?
Ômori: That’s right.
Interviewer: Why would you do that?
Ômori: Hmm. Since I see what a difficult situation
the older people, or their family, are in, I
would say I am doing my job according to the
situation.
Interviewer: When something like that happens,
when a patient needs more services, you would
persuade a doctor to raise the care level. How
do you feel when you do that?
Ômori: When I do it, it’s not like I’m asking a
doctor to fill out the extra paperwork. It’s more
like me telling a doctor more details about
the patient and having him/her write them
down. So, I feel like I have done what I was
supposed to do. Also, I think it is great for me
to have been able to build a good relationship
with a doctor because that would let me stay
connected with the doctor in the future.
大森：使いたくないというのもあるだろうし、満額という
のは点数いっぱいですよね。
聞き手：そうです。
大森：認定調査自体が本当に必要なものを測っていると
も思いませんし、それは個々の状況かなと。逆に、
例えば足りなくなった人の場合は、もうどうにかこう
にかして、お医者さんに訴えて介護度を上げるとい
うことはしています。
聞き手：足りない場合はですか。
大森：はい。
聞き手：それで特別、点数がつくわけじゃないですよ
ね。
大森：そうですね。
聞き手：何でそういうことをするんですか。
大森：うーん、それは、高齢者の方がというか、おうちの
方が本当に大変だという状況が見えていますので、
状況に合った仕事をしているということになるでし
ょうかね。
聞き手：そういうときに、足りないというときに、お医者
さんを説得して介護度を上げると。そういうときに
はどういうふうに思いますか。
大森：別にやるといっても、必要以上に書類を書いても
らうとかそういうことでもないので、ある情報を細
かく伝えて書いてもらうということですので、やるこ
とをやってできたなと思うし、お医者さんといい関
係ができたなというのは、その先にまた今後そのお
医者さんとつながることができるなというのは、メリ
ットとして感じますね。
The transcript 6e is the excerpt from the interview of Mrs. Sato which represents her sense
making of how a community development view is necessary to provide comprehensive
care in the community. As other nurse care managers in the interviews discussed, they
realised the closed nature of the inpatient care of hospital when they entered community
care setting. As I have posed the question of the care managers’ role in the community,
the speaker lists resource development as a possible role of care managers, though it is
not statutory role in the LTCI.
160
Masaya Shimmei
Transcript 6e. Care manager as a community worker
[Origninal Japanese]
Sato: When I was working as a nurse, in a hospital,
I used to focus on diseases rather than welfare,
and my focus was temporary and narrow. I
think I was focusing my attention on curing
this disease. But now, as a care manager, I
think I need to have a broader perspective
when providing care. Even if a care recipient
has a disease, I need to look at things besides
the disease itself, like his/her whole situation,
family and community. I think that’s the
difference.
Interviewer: Ah, I see. That’s true. In other words,
your perspective has broadened from an
individual body to things like a community
and society. In a sense, care managers need to
work on things while paying attention to social
aspects.
Sato: I think so. For example, suppose a certain
service may be able to support this person’s
life, but that service doesn’t exist now. Then
we may need to do something to create that
service. Maybe that’s care managers’ job too.
佐藤：看護師というか、病院で勤務していたときは、福
祉よりも病気とか、対処的に局所的にもちろん見て
いる。そこの病気を治すというところに集中的に意
識を働かせたと思うのですけども、今、ケアマネー
ジャーとしては、本人のことも全体的に病気を抱え
ていらっしゃったりすると、その病気のことだけで
なく全体だったり、家族であったり、地域であった
り、もう少し広い目でその人のケアをしていく、見な
ければならないというのを思っているので、その違
いはあると思う。
聞き手：ああ、なるほど。そうですね。つまり、個人の体
というその場から、もうちょっと地域だとか社会だ
とかという広い面に視点が広がっていったというこ
とですね。ケアマネというのは、ある意味では社会
という部分を考慮した形で、取り組まなければいけ
ない…
佐藤：と思います。例えば、ある人に対して、今こういう
サービスはないけれども、このサービスがあった
ら、このかたの暮らしを支えられるのにというのが
もしあるとしたならば、じゃあ、そのサービスがな
いのだったらどうやってつくっていこうかだとか、そ
ういう働きかけをもしかしたらしなければならない
のもケアマネの業務かもしれないですよね。
The transcript 6f is an excerpt from Ms. Kato, who runs a non-profit service provider and
also acts as care manager. The dialogue with Ms. Kato convinced me that community
social work is slowly but surely becoming embedded in Japanese society.
Transcript 6f. Care manager as a collaborator of the government
[Origninal Japanese]
Interviewer: Ms Kato, I understand your busy
schedule. But before leaving, I would like to
ask you two more questions, including a vague
one. The first question is about a care manager
as an occupation. Right now, you support your
family. What does it mean to be a care manager
as an occupation, to support a family?
Kato: Financially?
Interviewer: Yes.
Kato: It’s tough.
Interviewer: Tough.
Kato: Compared with other people in my age who
work at a small or medium-sized company,
monthly salaries are not as good.
聞き手：加藤さん、お時間がない中、最後２つ、漠とした
質問も入れ、お答えいただきたいんですが、１つは
職業としてのケアマネなんですけれども、今、加藤
さん、ご自分で世帯を担っていらっしゃいますが、
職業として、ケアマネであるということは、どういう
ことなんでしょうかね。その一家を支える。
加藤：経済的にですか。
聞き手：ええ。
加藤：厳しいですね。
聞き手：厳しい。
加藤：決して同年代の一般の中小企業のレベルと比べ
て、月給はよくないですね。
聞き手：なるほど。離職される方もいらっしゃるし、福祉
の、ケアマネを辞めて、もうちょっと大きい法人の職
員になると、管理者になるというようなことを選ぶ
方もいらっしゃいますけれども、介護保険の中では
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
161
Interviewer: I see. Many people also leave this job.
Other people may stay in the welfare field, but
they choose to work as administrators rather
than care managers, if they work for a larger
organisation. While people say care managers
play a key role in the long-term care insurance,
how can we improve this situation?
Kato: Improve.
Interviewer: Like, giving that role back to the
government?
Kato: (wry laugh) Giving back.
Interviewer: Or, maybe they can become quasipublic workers. I think there are many ways.
What kind of thing is lacking?
Kato: I don’t think it was all the bad stuff when
the system dumped everything on the private
sector.
Interviewer: Yes.
Kato: So, the government can play all the roles.
I may have said this before, but it seems like
the government is heading for downsizing,
and the welfare field is no exception. You can
see that the government definitely wants to
shift from institutional to home-based care.
It’s really good considering the economic
condition, safety of a community and family
unity. But we don’t have the environment to
provide adequate home-based care. Everyone
still prefers institutional care, and that’s where
all the capital goes. In order to transform this
situation, I think collaboration is important.
How can we work together and complement
each other? Things may get a little better if
we can successfully share responsibilities and
roles rather than depending solely on money,
the government or the private sector.
Interviewer: I see.
Kato: The bottom line is, the size of a pie is
already fixed. What a system does is to cut it
into pieces. So, of course, I’d like to see care
managers getting paid more, and we’d like to
get more reimbursement. But that wouldn’t be
enough to improve the situation. Higher pay
wouldn’t simply create more high-quality care
managers. So, it’s not just about money. Things
will not get better unless we collaborate,
work together and complement each other to
improve the entire community environment.
162
ケアマネがカギだというふうに言われている中で、
そういう状況というのはどういうふうに改善出来る
んでしょう。
加藤：改善。
聞き手：行政にその役割を返上するとか。
加藤：（笑い）返上。
聞き手：もしくは準公務員的な立場に立つとか。さまざ
まな方法があると思うんですけれど。どういうこと
が、何が足りないですか。
加藤：この制度が、民間にほうり投げられて、私、悪いこ
とばかりではないと思ってるんですね。
聞き手：はい。
加藤：だから、行政がすべて担えばいい。今、ちょっと前
に話していた話と同じことが多分あると思うんです
けれども、行政は小さな政府として縮小されていく
多分道筋ですよね、その中で、たとえば福祉の現場
の中でいうと、やっぱり施設から在宅へどうしても
転換したいというのは、経済状況もそうだし、地域
の安心ということにもつながるし、家族が分断され
ないということにもつながるので、施設から在宅へ
という考え方は、非常にいいんですけれども、それ
にしては在宅の環境が整いすぎていない。やっぱ
りみんな施設志向で、いろいろな資本が増えて行く
という状況になってしまっているのを、なんとか転
換するためには、やっぱりね、いかに連携、共同し
て、その得手と不得手の部分をお互いに補いあい
ながら、その地域の施作がうまく、ただお金に頼る
でなく、ただ人員に、たとえば行政側だけに頼るで
なく、民間側にだけ頼るでなく、みんながうまく分
担し合えるような施作の運営の仕方が多分もっとも
っと活発になれば、少し改善出来るんじゃないかと
思いますね。
聞き手：なるほどね。
加藤：要するにパイがきまっていて、それを分配するこ
とでしか、制度ってのは始まらないわけだから、こ
こでケアマネのお給料をあげて欲しいのはもちろ
ん、単価をあげて欲しいのはもちろんそうですけど
も、それだけでは改善出来ないと思いますね。単純
に高給にすればいいケアマネがふえるかっていう
と、そういうことにはならない。だからお金の面だ
けではない、全体の地域の環境をなんとか、みんな
が連携、共同して補い合える施策運営をしない限
りは、改善していかないと思いますね。
Masaya Shimmei
What I want to stress here is the response from Ms. Kato when I posed the question of
handing over the role of care management to the public sector as in the UK. When I
asked about her working situation, she replied that it is hard to operate care management
as a private provider. However, what I had received as an answer was a strong denial
of such hand over of the role to the public. The speaker considers that administering
the LTCI in collaboration with public and private as an opportunity to achieve better
community as citizens empower themselves by complementing the government. This
task reflects the recent government policy to establish working community care models.
She stands on the position that one has to speak out in order to support the community.
In relation to the governance of the welfare state issue, recognising ‘care management’
as a tool to disseminate the universal welfare society was also stated by different care
managers working in non-profit providers.
These depictions suggest that the ‘care management’ operated by the private sector
has an educational function because citizens and the private sectors involved in welfare
services are thought to provide a basis for a bottom-up effect to realise a democratic LTC
policy implementation. Thus, some sense of community leadership is necessary in ‘care
management’, although care managers work in the private sector. These care managers
see their tasks more from a view of allies’ of local governments, on the contrary to
what Barnes and Prior (2009) call ‘subversive citizens’ who resist to implement public
services.
Care managers not only expect themselves to direct services to clients defined by
the statute of LTCI or to supplement for the shortcomings of the government but also
include more voluntary tasks such as advocacy and community development to enhance
civic participation. It is close to the normative care management in relation to social
work theories such as community work and casework.
Even before the introduction of the LTCI, a number of scholars of public
administration supported active civic participation to the actual implementation
process because the LTCI aims at realising care of the frail elderly in the community
through decentralisation. Consequently, it induces a bottom-up movement by the local
authorities. Thus, these scholars expected, accompanied with active civic participation,
the implementation of LTCI makes Japanese democracy work. Such an idea to enhance
real democracy in Japan through the LTCI brought the non-profit sectors into the fore
of social care provision. The non-profits are expected not only to speak out but also to
collaboratively provide services to residents in the community. As the central government
proceeded to form a policy to enhance community care, non-profits are emerging as not
only as pressure groups but also as a social enterprise realising community social work.
The mix of professionals was commenced in the policy when the government started
to introduce the LTCI system. The re-categorisation of professionals in the name of care
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
163
management was ratified through political decision-making process. For example, the
making of assessment manuals for care managers that nursing, social work, medical
associations all developed different assessment methods but the Ministry allowed using
any of these assessment methods. This administrative and tasks unclearness which
letting border of expertise left blurred, still the regulative documents for assessment
used in the LTCI system to be compiled by the care manger were stipulated by the law.
As a normative care management, care managers also see their task as performing
community social work, including community involvement. This role of care manager
stands for ‘street-level leadership’, a concept named by Vinzant and Crothers (1988),
which stresses the fact that street level workers can realise value-based judgments to
avoid often criticised bureaucratic procedures by exercising leadership with discretion
on process and outcome.
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Masaya Shimmei
7 ORGANISATIONAL ATTRIBUTES
AND CARE MANAGEMENT
In this chapter, I analyse how the relevance of organisational attributes to the practice of
‘care management’ appears in the story telling. More specifically, I especially scrutinise
how the boundaries between practice and organisational management (typically the act
of profit-making) are narrated by care managers and made relevant in everyday practice.
This chapter is organised in two halves. The first half deals with the organisational
frames and the latter half analyses the consequences of such organisational attributes.
In the first half, I initially searched for content expressing the profit making aspect
of the quasi-market alignment of providers, or mix of provision introduced in the
LTCI. Then, I tried to see variations in such profit making talk within the different
organisational attributes, regional differences and multiple professions of the ‘care
management’ talk. Through this analysis, the act of talking in relation to organisational
frames, and the stories of care managers are revealed as identity developing narratives.
In the latter half, I analyse stories of care managers focusing on the organisational
influence on attributes of ‘care management’ expertise. In particular, I examine care
managers’ construction of stories using the specific word representing ‘clients’, looking
at how care managers fit their words to the organisational objectives they have assigned.
7.1 Thematic Analysis of Organisational Attributes
in ‘Care Management’ Practice
Organisational boundaries became an important arena of implementation when care
managers working in different organisational contexts experience their work differently.
One of the radical changes that took place with the introduction of the LTCI was the
use of quasi-market based elder care services. These service providers are operated by
both private and quasi-public organisations (social welfare corporations). Quasi-public
bodies were the main social service providers before the introduction of the LTCI
system. This structure of provision is altered mainly in urban areas, where many profitmaking providers came into the social care market whereas in the rural areas, the social
welfare corporation still occupy a central position in service provision.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
165
In addition to the change in the composition of service providers, the Japanese care
management system did not introduce the so-called purchaser-provider split, separating
the roles of provision and planning introduced in the UK model of care management,
which has connected most Japanese care managers with various service providers such
as day services, home help stations.
Narratives of the organisational fields are comprised from 1) organisation issues in
general, 2) administration, 3) community comprehensive centre and the role of public
sector and 4) community care and area issues. These themes all revealed relevant changes
in organisational boundaries made within the LTCI. In the organisational issues as a
general theme, the most common item was about how to run and continue the services
without falling into the red in revenues. The other themes concern the relationship
among different organisational actors in the LTCI, including the relationship among
other providers in the community. Themes about local administrative oversight are also
categorised here.
To scrutinise how care managers make sense of the organisational boundaries set
by the LTCI system, I focused the general themes on organisational attributes to care
management. In particular, I focused on the terms of the act of profit making expressed
by care managers. This framework has been selected to visualise common interpretations
of the care managers’ stories about conflicting goals such as the organisational pressure
to acquire profits and professional expertise to help clients. In other words, I tried to
analyse care managers’ sense making of the introduction of the quasi-market policy
introduced in the LTCI.
7.1.1
The act of profit making as a general
requirement in care management
The result of the thematic analysis revealed that profit-making talk is prevalent
among care managers. I searched for sentences which had a close meaning to measure
economic activities in the interviews. Three adjective terms were most commonly used
to represent such activities. The terms that most commonly appeared were literally profit
(rieki) and the second was revenue (shûeki), the last was management (keiei). How these
terms were used in the interviews represents their tendency to merge the new idea into
their everyday work. The term profit has appeared 29 times in interviews with 12 care
managers. The revenue appeared 5 times in interviews with 2 care managers. Whereas,
management, also appeared 29 times in interviews with 10 care managers.
I have examined the relationship between the use of these terms with organisational
affiliations and professional differences respectively. The result is that occurrence of such
166
Masaya Shimmei
terms are not different according to the organisational affiliation of interviewed care
managers whether working in profit, non-profit making nor quasi-public organisations
(social welfare corporations).
Narratives to ensure profit for providers are particularly common among care
managers, with relative differences between urban and rural providers. This is because
the majority of providers in rural areas are still dominated by quasi-public providers
where the active involvement of local authorities in terms of finance and people-topeople exchange is more common than urban area. These providers are not facing severe
financial pressures compared to for-profit providers in urban areas. The expression of
the act of profit making was common and widespread among staff members working in
LTCI service sectors meaning that even care managers in non-profit organisations are
actively talking about profit making as issue of management.
Moreover, no differences were revealed in terms of usage according to background
expertise. For instance, an interviewed social worker indicated a heavy inclination
towards business management perspectives, which he sees as what social welfare usually
lacks. The other social work based care managers regarded the profit-making suppliers
of care as an incubator of business management practice rather than social welfare
administration.
Having said that there was no apparent connection between expertise of their
professional background and act of profit making, still, care managers often compare
their work in terms of actual and normative care management.
7.1.2
Actual/normative care management as an ethical representation
As a result of service provisioned by the quasi-market approach, profit making has
become a general objective among care managers. The analysis above revealed distinct
narrative structures that reflected a mixed service provision. Let me first explain
specific terms I use in this analysis. In the Japanese LTCI system, the statutory term
‘care management’ is kaigo-shien, care management agency is kyotaku-kaigoshienjigyôsho. Sometimes the term is abbreviated as kyotaku. The person who does the ‘care
management’ is certified care manager termed kaigo-shien-senmonin. These terms are
the official wording listed in the LTCI statute and used in bureaucratic paperwork. On
the other hand, care managers often use the term kea-mane, the abbreviation of care
manager, and kea-manêjâ or kea-manejâ, literally care manager to call themselves. In
the interview data, the terms kea-mane, kea-manêjâ, kea-manejâ appeared 1,541 times
in 17 interviews, where kyotaku (care management agency) appeared 131 times.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
167
The transcript 7a from Mrs. Saito illustrates how the speaker uses these terms
interchangeably. I asked Mrs. Saito about the discretion available to care managers. The
speaker started to talk how care managers’ discretionary power is limited not only by
institutional but also organisational boundaries. I first was not aware of the selective
use of the three different terms representing ‘care management’ and ‘care managers’ but
when it comes to the issue of ethics, I became aware of how care managers are making
sense of their identity in the boundaries between actual profit-making/management
agency and normative care manager.
Transcript 7a. Ethics of ‘actual’, ‘profit-making’ and ‘normative’ care management
Saito: Even within the same organisation. A few
years ago, we gave it a try and calculated how
much all of our kea-mane-san (care managers)
use the services within our organisation. It
turned out that they used the services within
the organisation only for 30% of the total.
The rest of them were all different provider
organisations. Usually, it’s the other way
around, isn’t it?
Interviewer: Few organisations would say this is
OK.
Saito: They said ‘why don’t the kyotaku (care
management agency) (use the services within
the organisation)?’ So, the manager made it
clear why they wouldn’t use these services.
Then, they decided to bring the top of each
department together, including the one from
kyotaku (care management agency), to discuss
the ways so that these services could be used
more. Why wouldn’t (our) kyotaku (care
management agency) choose the services
within the organisation? It turned out the
quality of the home help service was really
poor: they wouldn’t listen, and they would turn
down requests like ‘we can’t do it,’ ‘no’ and ‘we
don’t make a visit on Saturdays.’ Such poor
services are useless, so care managers choose
other organisations. That kind of information
would go to the organisation’s president, and
that’s how things are improved within the
organisation. But I think this kind of thing is,
maybe not extremely, but rare. Usually, while
kyotaku (care management agency) is supposed
to be neutral and fair under the law, it is like
a special sales section dealing with profitable
customers at a department store. So, what’s
important is whether care managers who work
168
[Origninal Japanese]
斉藤：同じ事業所の中でも。試しで何年か前ですけど、
どのくらい使ってるのかを出してみたんです、全部
ケアマネさんの。３割ぐらいしか使ってなくて、併設
事業は、あと全部違う事業所だったんですよ。普通
は逆ぐらいですよね。
聞き手：それでいいっていってくれる所は珍しいです
ね。
斉藤：何で居宅はって言うから、でもそこんとこにきちん
と言うわけですよ、管理者が、こうこうこういう訳で
使わないと。だったら使えるように、事業所の中で
各部門の責任者を呼んで、居宅も一緒になって、会
議をしようっていうことになったんですよ。何で居
宅が選ばないのか。その訪問介護もほんとに質が
悪いというか、言うこと聞いてくれないというか、こ
ちらからお願いしても、いや、それできないとか、駄
目だとか、土曜日行かないとかって話になって、そ
れじゃ、動きが悪くて使えないって、それで他の事
業所を選んでますからね。そこは理事長に話をし
ますから、そうやって事業所内での改善はしてます
ね。ただ、やっぱりそれは、ごくとは言わないけど、
まれだと思いますよ。通常は、居宅っていうのはほ
んとに、法律上は中立・公平って言うけれども、や
っぱりデパートで言えば外商部門ですよね、居宅っ
ていうのは。だから、そこでもその中でするケアマ
ネとして、どう自分の事業所を独立したもの、併設
事業の中にありながら独立した事業所と考えられ
るかどうかですよね。だから、結果的に自分とこの
事業所を使うのは、何ら構わないと思うんだけど、
何も考えずに利用者さんの状態とも合わせずに、も
う事業所、ここしかないというふうに決めてしまうっ
て、それはもうケアマネとしての倫理とすると反する
とこだと思うので。いろいろとやった結果、やっぱ
りうちの事業所が一番ぴったりだったっていうこと
は、あれば紹介しますけど。
Masaya Shimmei
in that section can think of the kyotaku (care
management agency) as an independent entity
even though that agency is part of a bigger
organisation with affiliated agencies. So, I
think it’s OK if care managers happen to use
services within the organisation. But I think
it is against kea-mane-no (care managers’)
ethics if they blindly choose the service
provider, as if there were no other alternatives,
without thinking and considering the service
user’s conditions. I would make referrals (to
the services within the organisation) when
I conclude that our organisation is the best
choice after careful consideration.
The speaker used the Japanese term jigyôsha (事業者) for expressing a provider or an
agency (jigyôsho, 事業所) in general. In this narrative, the speaker tried to make sense
of the dilemma occurring in the care management agency using their affiliated home
help services or services provided by another service agency. If using their own affiliated
services brings profit to an umbrella agency as a whole, care managers have the ethical
dilemma of securing independence from organisational pressure because the services
used by the affiliated services does not necessarily benefit clients, when flexible services
are available outside.
The point here is that the expression represented an identity confirmation narrative.
The narrative represents the two faces of the care management agency (jigyôsha) and
individual care managers. The first face is represented when the speaker used the
statutory term for care management agency kyotaku or kyotaku-kaigo-shien-jigyôsho,
such an utilisation of terms represents managers who should keep an eye on the act of
profit-making, expressed as a special sales section at a department store (gaishôbumon).
Gaishôbumon (外商部門) is a special sales section dealing with well-off patron
customers is in Japanese. The term also has the connotation of representing the statutory
‘care management’ written in the LTCI statute. The other face, in contrast to above two
meanings, is when the speaker selected the word kea-mane as the individual worker
who carries out an ideal care management, the speaker selectively depicts a group of
individual professionals with expertise with own professional ethics.
As three different characters used in the Japanese writing system develop distinct
nuances (see, Chapter 3, pp. 82–84); the word kea-mane, a shortened form of the term
of English origin for care management or care managers, is of 4 metres and thus falls
under the type of phonetics making Japanese speakers feel the sense of affinity. This
is in contrast to the term kyotaku-kaigo-shien-iigyôsho or kyotaku, only signified in
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
169
kanji, are considered as political or abstract concepts while Japanese would find the
word kea-mane closer to their daily life. In addition, the term kea-mane was likely to
be used both as a prefix to specifically represent expertise, used as kea-mane-jigyôsho
which denotes a care management agency or as an indication of individual with ‘care
management’ expertise while kyotaku refers to statutory form of organisation. On
these grounds, it may seems reasonable to construe that the speaker constructs their
identity as care manager as ethical when comparatively used with the term meaning
statutory care manager or an agency (kyotaku) as it represents part of the organisational
machineries for profit making instrument and implementing bureaucracy. This parallel
alignment of two domains, namely a) statutory and organisational to b) expertise in
narrative structure are thought to have certain impact to the actual practices carried
out daily. Thus, I assumed the alteration of word usage occurs because care managers
make sense of their dilemma between pressure to profit making act and expertise by
interchangeably using these two terms to express their positions and identities.
7.2 Decoupling ‘Clients’ within Organisation/Expertise Chasm
In the previous section, I analysed care managers’ identity construction through
mobilising different terms representing sense making in ideal and statutory definitions
of care management. The process is especially identifiable in the story of profit making
act where identity building is accomplished through interchangeable utilisation of the
statutory and ideal definition of care management. In the current section, I examine
how such multiple identities developed in the organisational boundaries that affect
care managers’ perceptions on everyday practices. Through this process, I attempt
to analyse the intersection of the profit making pressure in the private sector, the
bureaucratic requirements for record keeping and the cry for professional expertise of
care management as a practice within the current LTCI system.
To perform the task, I first focused on the different depictions used to express
‘clients’ in the interview texts where such an intersection occurred. To identify their
logic of selecting the terms to represent ‘clients’, I sought out the commonalities of usage
of service users (riyôsha) and customers (kyaku) among these 17 care managers. Before
moving to illustrate such talks, I would like to point out that the term service users
in Japan has been a popular expression standing for clients of the publicly assigned
services before the introduction of the LTCI system. As a result, distinct differences
in describing their clients have emerged. In the interview data, the term representing
clients appeared as service users and customers: The term service users was used by the
interviewees 411 times in the entire interview sessions. Among them the interviewer
170
Masaya Shimmei
used the term 82 times (13%) whereas 17 care managers used 329 times in the interview
sessions. On the other hand, the term customers appeared 104 times in the interview
sessions with 11 care managers among 17. This tendency shows that the term service
users appeared three times more than the customers. Although care managers use the
term service users frequently to describe their clients, 11 care managers used both terms
interchangeably in the interview settings.
7.2.1
Elderly and their family as clients/service-users/customers
Managing profits
The transcript 7b is from Mr. Inoue, a care manager who had been worked for one of the
major profit making service providers. It gives a rich picture of how both organisational
pressures to make profit and the LTCI institutional boundaries divides clients/serviceusers/customers. It also represents care managers’ rationale under the given institutional
frame for selecting the terms they use to represent ‘clients’ in different ways. As an
interviewer, I did not use the term customers (kyaku) in the interview process. Instead,
I used the term service users (riyôsha).
The story was about how he experienced hardship with the superintendent, whose
company forced him to leave the work place. The story emerged when I have asked
about the heavy workload he carried. The speaker used the term customers when he
tried to reconstruct the story that his superintendent condemned his not being able to
think about profit making act. In this organisational context, the term ‘clients’ is related
to organisational act of profit making. On the other hand, the speaker used the term
service users when he tried to connect the ‘client’ to professional expertise. The speaker
invited me to hear the story how he had been told to take customers, whereas he intends
to do good work with service users.
Transcript 7b. Managing profits
Interviewer: Well, you now have 35 cases, but
you’re told to have 50, 70 or 80. That’s a lot.
Why were you told to have 70 or 80 cases?
Inoue: After all, they have to think about how
much it costs to hire one person. <Skip>They
say it costs more than 450,000 yen to hire a
care manager because they have to pay for
other things besides salary. Also, other care
managers have as many cases as they can.
What’s strange about this place is that they
[Origninal Japanese]
聞き手：その50人、今35人で、70人80人というのはすごい
数ですよね。何でこんな70人80人持てって言われた
んでしょう。
井上：結局貴方１人雇ってるのに、いくら払ってると思う
と。＜略＞給料の他にかかるものがあるから45万じ
ゃ少ないということを言うんですよ。それに、他の人
はいっぱいいっぱい持ってる。そこの考え方でお
かしなのは、多ければどこ行ってもいいんですね、
会社がA区にあるのにB区に行ったりC区に行ったり
と、利用者のためじゃないんですよ。近くてすぐ飛
んでけるというんじゃなくて、件数さえ持って、お金
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
171
don’t care where the service users are as long
as we take them. Although the company is
located in District A, we go really far to places
like Districts B and C. It’s not for the benefit
of service users. It’s not like we are close to
them so that we can come over immediately
if anything happens. The new department
manager’s priority is making money by having
many cases. So I couldn’t stay there for long.
Interview: Is the department manager from the
welfare field?
Inoue: No, completely different. We rarely have
decent managers. It’s true everywhere. Maybe
I’m a bit off the track, but can I talk about it a
little?
Interviewer: Yes.
Inoue: I used to work for Provider X after I became
eligible to take an exam for a certified care
worker, only for a year. When I was working
there, a branch manager told me that they didn’t
need a professional like me although I worked
with service users very well. <Skip> When I
became a care manager, he told me that they
needed housewife care managers who would
get customers if they were told to increase
sales. They wouldn’t need a professional like
me. It wouldn’t matter if I were a certified
care worker or not. They wanted housewives
who would say yes to everything and bring in
money. That’s what he told me.
さえ稼げばという営利目的の部長が来てしまったの
で、長く続けることができなくなって。
聞き手：部長さんは福祉畑の人なんですか
井上：全然違います。どこでもそうですが、話がちょっと
ずれるかもしれませんが、きちんとした人が上にい
るということは滅多にないです。ちょっとそのお話
をさせてもらっても大丈夫ですか。
聞き手：はい。
井上：…介護福祉士の受験資格を取ってから[ある民間
の事業者] にいたことがあります、一年間だけです
ね。その時に、利用者とはすごく上手くやれるんで
すけども、貴方みたいなプロはいらないって言われ
たことがあるんです、支店長に。＜途中略＞うちは
売り上げを上げてくれと言ったらどんどんお客さん
を取ってくれる主婦のケアマネージャーが欲しいん
ですと、ケアマネージャー受かったときですね。貴
方みたいなプロはいりません、介護福祉士だろうが
そんなのは関係ありません、売り上げを上げてくれ
る主婦のはいはい言ってくれる人材が欲しいんです
と言われたんです。
When I started to come across male care managers in the interview process, my initial
interest was to ask how social work and men care managers regarding their work. In this
instance, one of my colleagues introduced me to Mr. Inoue. As he had rich experience
in the social welfare sector, his story was vivid and lively. In the interview, he offered
me important foci to understand how the organisational boundaries influence care
managers’ perceptions of clients. The speaker’s conflicting view on profit making is based
on his supervisor’s lack of ethics because the supervisors are not from social welfare
background or health sector professionals. As denoted in Mrs. Saito’s narrative, instead
of being a professional, the company wants him to become salesman, as most parttime house wife care managers are doing. But interestingly, in the later talk, Mr. Inoue
speaks about the compliance of clients. I was astonished by the fact that the two extreme
views on the act of profit-making and some form of pro-patriarchal notion of clients are
inherent in the multiple identities imposed on care managers because of the pressure to
172
Masaya Shimmei
follow the both organisational profit making and bureaucratic standardisation within
administrative hierarchies.
I used the above excerpt from care managers working at the for-profit providers but
making profit also gained importance for non-profit providers because without sufficient
profit, non-profits cannot operate the LTCI service per se but also extra community
services to actualise own organisational missions.
Clients-have-to-be-customer-first
The transcript 7c is the narrative of Mrs. Okayama, a care manager with a social work
background. The narrative appeared in the dialogue on how care managers’ work is
affected by other service providers. She stated that the current system that allows care
managers to be incorporated in community-based services providers because she may
give eyes on service users (riyôsha) with some discretion allowed in the care management.
But the speaker also states that if care managers want to have connection with service
users, at least the service needy had to use one of the LTCI covered services as customers
(kyaku). Once the frail elderly became a customer then care managers can exert their
discretion not only to keep an eye on the elder care needy but on family carers as well.
Transcript 7c. Clients-have-to-be-customer-first
Okayama (wife): As a care manager, I can see firsthand how service users are doing.
Interviewer: Yeah.
Okayama (wife): So, we have many advantages.
Interviewer: You have advantages.
Okayama (wife): Especially if a service user used at
least one service as a customer, care managers
could also arrange other places at their own
discretion.
[Origninal Japanese]
岡山（夫人）：ケアマネとしてはサービスを利用している
利用者の状況が直で見れるから。
聞き手：うん。
岡山（夫人）：メリットはすごくたくさんありま す。
聞き手：メリットはあると。
岡山（夫人）：特に最低限一つでも、お客さんとして使
ってくれれば、あとはケアマネの裁量でほかのとこ
ろっていうのも、できたので。
The speaker used the term kea-mane, which represents normative identity element of
‘care management’ who exert discretion. Here, the speaker connects the identity and
subject of their expertise by expressing discretion that is actually benefit service users.
Thus, the speaker makes sense of his/her work according to an institutional frame,
identifying the boundaries drawn to admit who can be a client and who cannot be.
Japanese care managers can provide services only to those who use the LTCI services
for budgetary reasons; care management service fee is not chargeable when clients do
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
173
not use the LTCI services, with the exception of care managers in the comprehensive
community care support centre (chiiki-hôkatsu-shien-sentâ). They can provide socalled ‘care prevention services’ aiming to become care needy. It is the institutional and
organisational boundaries that define the border to be a client, who care managers can
help. The change in the institutional frame of the LTC policy placed human services
personnel in complex situations. Because of this change, it is essential that if care
managers want to make contacts with clients, these clients were required to use the
services covered by the LTCI system.
Institutionally, care managers are required to look into both profits for providers and
benefits of clients. The institutional frames serve as care managers’ basic foundations
disseminating how clients should utilise services, which providers to offer in the care
planning handled by care managers.
7.2.2
Demarcation of public and private responsibilities
In this analysis, I examined the intentional use of customers/service users interchange
as a mode of protest. The terms are used interchangeably in terms of care managers’
work borders. I interpreted the talk as an expression of the demarcation between public
and private responsibility.
Clients as customers
Mr. Miyazawa is a married man in his early 30s working in rural area as a care manager at
one of the social welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin) in the region. The following
talk appeared when I asked about how municipal caseworkers, who operate income
support for low income residents come across with care managers (transcript 7d). In
Japan there are regional differences in the pattern of the service use in the community.
Campbell and Nishimura (2010) point out that the families and elderly living in rural
areas prefer to use ‘outside house services’ such as day-centres and short-stays, whereas
the elderly living in urban areas prefer in-house services such as home-help services.
This difference stems from differences in living arrangements. In rural areas, people
tend to live in larger houses with two-to-three generation families, whereas elderly
living in urban areas tend to be in nuclear family structures. In rural areas, other family
members want the elderly to go out for a while to do house chores whereas the elderly
in urban areas want to stay in their house. There is a distinct pattern in use of the term
customers. In the talks by all the care managers interviewed, it was used 104 times and
out of which, 64 times (61%) by Mr. Miyazawa.
174
Masaya Shimmei
Transcript 7d. Clients as customers
Interviewer: …So, in your heart, you like to
recommend home-based care while a lot of
people prefer institutional care, don’ you? …
I suppose you feel conflicted in many ways.
How do you take them well and continue your
current job?
Miyazawa: We can’t get involved in financial
matters. So, if you like to hear stories only
on public assistance, you may want to go to a
relevant department in a city office. I wish they
could pay a little more attention to something
other than money, like ‘Stop counting money
and start listening to customers a little more,’
you know.
Interviewer: Hmmm. You call them ‘customers.’
Miyazawa: We use the term ‘Goriyousha-sama
(Mr. or Ms Service User).’ But what can I say…
they are customers, aren’t they (laugh).
[Origninal Japanese]
聞き手：・・・施設希望者が非常に多い中で在宅を勧め
たいって、宮沢さんは、心の中では思ってらっしゃ
るわけですね。・・・たぶん、いろんな意味で葛藤
があるかと思うんですね。それをどうやって納得さ
れて、今のお仕事を続けてらっしゃいますか。
宮沢：わたしたちって、お金に関することって携われな
いので、保護に関して限定でお話をするとすれば、
役所の係の方ですね。願わくば、もう少し、金勘定
ばかりではなくっていうところなんですけどね。金
勘定ばかりしてないで、もう少し、お客さんの声聞い
てくれないっていうような気持ちもあります、やっぱ
り。
聞き手：うーん。お客さんって呼ぶんですね。
宮沢：ご利用者さまっていう言い方はするんですけれど
も、何ていうんでしょう、お客さんですからね(笑)
。
I paid attention to the use of the terms during the interview process. The speaker used
the term customer when he claims that caseworkers affiliated to local authorities who
do the work to provide income support, the public livelihood assistance program
(seikatsuhogo) defined in the Public Assistance Act. The case mangers informally
commission their work to care managers in private sector. During the interview, I have
noticed and pointed out his use of the term customers (okyakusan), then he offered
me another way of calling clients service users (goriyôshasama) but with laughter, he
showed his preference to use customers instead.
I interpreted his preference for the term to represent his ambivalence toward informal
commissioning by the local officials as he works in the private sector. The speaker claims
that the case managers of the local authorities unofficially delegate the information
gathering effort of clients who are also users of the LTCI services to care managers. He
tried to direct his criticism towards caseworker (kêsu-wâkâ) for intentional use of care
managers as a substitute and try to make sense of their work in relation to casework
(kêsu-wâku) for the income security program operated by the local authority by using
the term customers (okyakusan), which clearly demarcates the responsibility between
the private LTCI service and the income support called the public livelihood assistance
program.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
175
7.3 Care Managers’ Anxiety and Behaviour in
Conflicting Organisational Objectives
As stated in Chapter 2, by its nature, care management expertise is regarded ambiguous.
In addition, as the LTCI is a national program, the bureaucratic requirements to provide
accountable services have become more stringent. According to Suda and Asakawa
(2004), the managerial features of service organisations were divided between technical
and managerial cores among Japanese LTCI service providers.
Due to the multifunctional and complex nature of care management and the
objectives of bureaucratic standardisation, care managers are forced to make certain
behavioural adaptations to cope with problematic situations. The following excerpts are
examples of how these organisational borders drawn in the welfare mix affect practices
of care management. The first excerpt is about how procedural ambiguity occurs in
managerial cores, such as bureaucratic auditing and clerical work, influence care
mangers’ behaviour. The second excerpt shows technical ambiguity arise in technical
core, mostly about how care managers deal with both social and medical contexts,
which causes ambiguity of the care managers’ roles.
7.3.1
Anxiety and over-adaptation to procedural ambiguity
In terms of procedural ambiguity observed in the managerial core, care managers show
an over-adaptation to the guidelines set out in the law. As a consequence, care managers
increase their workload, to be perfect for audits carried out by local authorities. The
transcript 7e shows how care managers’ make sense of the way to cope with insecurity
attributed to the ambiguity of the task of care managers.
Transcript 7e. Anxiety and over-adaptation
Saito: But I’m not sure about the details, like
document forms we have worked on. During
the first year, we struggled in preparing plans
for prevention. But we worked on things,
like developing new forms and simplifying
documents. I’m not sure how people heard
about us, but we had a lot of visitors to see
our work in City B. So, I don’t know why,
but when I went somewhere, people said,
‘It’s City B Method.’ They told me that’s how
it was called. It’s not just about prevention,
176
[Origninal Japanese]
斉藤：でも、わたしたちがやってたこまごま、その書式が
どうのっていうのは、どうか分かりませんけど。最初
の１年は予防のプランも大変でしたけれども、そう
いう形で新たなのを作ったりとか、書式関係で簡略
化していくだとかっていうところは、けっこうB市は、
どういうルートで流れたかは、視察もけっこう多か
ったんですよ、それなんで、分かんないけど、ある所
に行ったら、それB方式だって言われて、そういうよ
うに言葉使われてるみたいだって言われたんです。
予防に関してだけじゃないんですけど、ケアマネさ
んって、仕事自分で増やすんですよ。
聞き手：何で増やすんですか。
Masaya Shimmei
but care managers tend to increase their own
workloads.
Interviewer: Why do they do that?
Saito: Maybe because they feel insecure. They say
their job is harder since they increased the
workload. Take paperwork for example. A
national rule says you are supposed to prepare a
5-page document in a certain format. But they
prepare extra 10 pages as a base for that 5-page
document. Consequently, they would say their
job is to prepare the 15-page document. When
I ask them which they put more energy on,
they say the 10-page document, not the 5-page
document they are supposed to work on in
the first place. They spend more time on what
they are not required to do rather than what
they should be doing. That’s my impression.
Another example is forms for record keeping.
They develop different forms besides care
management progress records, like outcome
forms, monitoring forms and forms for
correspondence. They intentionally make
different forms, keep records and copy some of
the information. It happens all the time.
Interviewer: That insecurity… what are they
insecure about?
Saito: I’m not sure about that. It’s strange, isn’t it?
Interviewer: In other words, why would they feel
the need to prepare extra 10 pages?
Saito: It’s not something each care manager makes.
Rather, they get information at places like
conferences, care managers’ council meetings
and magazines. They get information on what
kind of form works great and something like
that. Prefecture A used to make different forms
for monitoring too, like practice logs. When I
saw them, I was like, ‘Why so many pages?’ So,
when forms like them come out, people start
thinking, ‘This IS the monitoring form.’ In
the world of care management, we didn’t have
things like that. Especially in monitoring, we
had no idea how to do it. They say we should
do monitoring, and they put it in writing what
monitoring is about. But they can’t tell whether
we actually did monitoring or not. They say it’s
enough if I write down in a progress report
that I did monitoring, but we’re still unsure.
Saito: Also, when government workers conduct a
site visit for instruction, they can’t tell which
part of the record is considered monitoring.
This may be an extreme example, but an
auditor asked me during the instruction which
斉藤：不安だからじゃないんですかね。増やしたこと
で、仕事が大変って言うんですね。例えば紙１枚に
しても国の規定で行けば、５枚の紙を作りなさい
っていう、こういった書式を作りなさいっていった
ときに、その５枚を作る土台になる形として、余分
に10枚ぐらい作るわけですよ。そうすっと自分の
仕事、15枚の紙を仕上げることが仕事だっていう
ふうに言うんだけど。じゃ、こっちの５枚の方じゃな
くて、どっちに力かけてるのって言うと、こっちの10
枚、自分が規定をされた、やらなきゃいけないこと
じゃないものに関してすごく力をかける、時間をか
けてしまって、本来やるべきところに時間をかけて
ないっていうのも、あるんじゃないかと思うんです
よ。だからいろんな記録の様式だとかも、例えば居
宅介護支援経過記録だけじゃなくて、それ以外の
様式作ったりとか、アウトカムとかモニタリングで票
を作ったりとかしますよね。それから連絡用紙とか
って、あえて違うものを作って、それに記録をしてと
か、いろいろ転記をしながら作ったりとかっていう
のが、あるんですよ。
聞き手：その不安っていうのは、何に対する不安なんで
すかね。
斉藤：その辺がよく分からないって、おかしいんですけ
れども。
聞き手：つまり何で10枚余計に持っておく必要を、彼ら
彼女らは感じるんでしょうかね。
斉藤：それを一人一人、個人が作ったんではなくて、以
外に、例えば学会であるとかケアマネ協議会である
とか、あとは雑誌であるとかっていう情報の中で、
そういった情報収集にはこの用紙がいいだとか、
モニタリングは、A県なんかもよく作りましたよね、
実践記録用紙とか。あれ見てもこんなに枚数作る
のかっていう、だから、ああいうものが出ると、これ
がモニタリング票だっていうふうに出ちゃうんです
よ。ケアマネの世界って、あまりそういったものがな
かったですから、特にモニタリングに関してなんか
は、どうやったらいいのかが分からない、モニタリン
グしなさいよっていうふうにはありますけれども、
文字にするとこうこうこういうことがモニタリングで
すよっていうけれど、実際にモニタリングをしたかど
うかっていうのが分からないんですよね。支援経過
記録の中で、モニタリングしたことでいいというふう
に言われていても、分からない。
斉藤：それと、行政が実地指導するときに、モニタリン
グかどうか判断が付かないんですよ、記録の中だ
と。極端な話ですけど、指導監査にしても受けてる
ときに、どれがモニタリングですかって言われたか
ら、これですって言ったら、じゃ、ここの頭の所にモ
ニタリングって書いておいてくださいって言うんで
すよ。じゃないと分かりませんっていう、そういう区
別をしなさい。そうなると、結局そういう質問の時
に、はい、これですって出せるようなものが必要とい
うことで、新たに紙を生むんですよ。そういった紙
が、一つのものを証明する、説明するための紙とし
てもう一枚が出てきたりとか、あと医者との連携と
かって、様式っていって、また作りますよね。それっ
てファクスみたいな簡単な紙じゃ駄目なのかってい
うと、いろいろ上書きから始まって、質問状、それか
らこういう枠を作ってっていうことになりますよね。
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
177
part was monitoring. So I said this part was.
Then she told me to put down ‘monitoring’ at
the beginning of that part. She told me to make
it clear like that, otherwise people wouldn’t
be able to tell. Consequently, you would
need something to show when you are asked
questions like that. That’s how new forms are
started. Such a paper will prove something,
and care managers make another page to
explain something. Also, when care managers
collaborate with a doctor, they make another
form. You may say, ‘Can’t it be something
simple like a fax cover sheet?’ But they
overwrite things, write question letters and
make such and such frames. They even make
their samples. Are these all efforts effective?
Well, they may be better than nothing, and
they might have given opportunities for
collaboration. But I don’t think they have led
to improvement or anything like that.
それもサンプルいろいろ作るけれども、それは効果
があったのかっていったら、ないわけじゃないでし
ょうけど、連携取れる機会になってますでしょうけ
ど、でも改善にはならなかったんじゃないかと自分
では思うんですよ、改善というか、そういう流れの中
のね。
The care managers expressed their ambiguity in two broad categories. The first is
procedural ambiguity and the second is technical or instrumental ambiguity. Both
categories of ambiguity are interrelated.
The narrative of Mrs. Saito is a clear example of procedural ambiguity. In this
narrative, the speaker expressed what she found ambiguous about care managers’
responsibilities. The speaker starts with the story that care managers increase their work
efforts by themselves due to a sense of insecurity, as they feel that they are not doing
enough to meet the requirements. Then the speaker attributes their overreaction to a
lack of expertise, which makes it difficult to document for administrative purposes.
However, there are no clear guidelines available when they try to learn at conferences
and seminars because the interpretation of task of ‘care management’ is diverse, even
among local authorities which perform audits of the health, nursing and social work
disciplines.
Care managers are required to comply with both organisational requirements to
maintain revenues and with bureaucratic procedures to prove the service is adequately
provided. The way to comply with bureaucratic demands depends on how the template
for record keeping is standardised. However, as quite often indicated, the complexity
of care management militates against standardisation. The Japanese government did
not develop standardised assessment and monitoring templates because there are
three different templates proposed by three different professional groups; the Japanese
178
Masaya Shimmei
Association of Certified Social Workers, the Japanese Nursing Association and protocols
made by the medical sector. Reflecting this chaos in developing common assessment
method, the government increased the amount of paper work to ease anxiety among
care managers and required additional records if local authorities and insurance funds
request for further documentation at audit.
Care managers and providers in Japan are in a give-and-take relationship to run
their business. As the Japanese LTCI introduced a dual surveillance system to avoid
fraud, care managers carefully prepare records. If the local authorities or insurance
fund did not accept their plans and monitoring efforts, the related service providers
cannot earn their service fees.
7.3.2
Technical ambiguity and managerial pressure
Social welfare as a book smart without practice
In terms of technical ambiguity, the following transcript 7f attributes ambiguity to
tasks that are somewhere between the borders of the social and medical disciplines. The
speaker starts with the notion of the lack of practice among social-based care managers
in comparison to nurse care managers. Then he continued to talk about how he acted
passively when he engaged in work with nurses. He then enlarged the definition of
whole life (seikatsu zenpan) to include more medical knowledge became necessary to
work in the field. Then speaker stated about ambiguity that the term kea (care) embraces
all health and social aspects, which blurs the role of care managers. In Japanese,
whereas the term seikatsu stands for life, the term kaigo has a more limited connotation
of support for those who lost the ability of independent living and is mainly used for
eldercare. It is widely accepted that the daily lives and chronic conditions of the elderly
require multi-disciplinary knowledge. This idea is theorised in ‘care management’ in
the form of the multi-disciplinary team approach. However, the actual imbalance of
knowledge of different kinds of expertise confuses workers and even circumvents them
from seeking active communication to bridge the different disciplinary professionals
based on a team approach.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
179
Transcript 7f. Social welfare as a book smart without practice
[Origninal Japanese]
Okayama (husband): They are book smart without
practice experiences.
Interviewer: What happens when they don’t have
practice experience?
Okayama (husband): When they talk about
something, with a nurse for example, they
might become passive somewhere. They would
still talk though.
Interviewer: Then, where is ‘welfare’ positioned
within the long-term care system? What was
your impression while you were working?
Okayama (husband): It’s the reality of care.
Interviewer: Yes.
Okayama (husband): It’s the whole life, but...
Interviewer: It’s the whole life, but…
Okayama (husband): Healthcare is part of the
life, of course. When it comes to healthcare,
workers with welfare background may be quite
weak, I suppose.
Interviewer: Then, what can workers with welfare
background be stronger in?
Okayama (husband): We think about that too. We
tend to make comparisons while we work with
nurses. They can do care work too, but care
workers are not allowed to practice medicine,
basically. So, we ask ourselves, ‘What’s the
scope of care work? What is the specialty of
care work?’ If you want, you can do care work
even without qualification like a certified care
worker or a home-helper. Boundaries are very
vague, and you can do the same kind of work
with our without a certificate if you want. This
also has a positive side, of course. Because
care workers and social workers don’t have
clear specialty, unlike nurses who are engaged
in medical practice, we can’t say much when
someone asks us what care work is all about,
I think.
180
岡山（夫）：勉強した知識はあって、実践がないんです
よね。
聞き手　：実践がないとどうでしょう。
岡山（夫）：何かを話してるときに、例えば看護婦さんと
話をしてるときに、どっかで受け手に回ってしまって
る部分は、あったと思いますね。もちろんそれでも
話はしますけども。
聞き手　：そうすると福祉っていうのは、介護保険の中
で、どういう位置付けになっているんでしょうかね。
仕事をされて、どういうふうにお感じになりました。
岡山（夫）：介護実態ですよね。
聞き手　：ええ。
岡山（夫）：生活全般なんですけども。
聞き手　：生活全般なんだけども。
岡山（夫）：生活の中にも、もちろん医療が入ってくるじ
ゃないですか。そこに関すると、たぶん福祉の人た
ちは弱い部分が、非常にあるんではないかな。
聞き手　：逆に福祉が強いところはどこなんですか。
岡山（夫）：これも僕らも考えるんです。何か比較しちゃ
うところがあって、今も一緒に働いてますけども、看
護師の人って、介護もできるじゃないですか。でも、
介護の職員は、医療行為が基本的にできないのも
ありますし、そうすると、介護って、できる幅ってど
うなのかなって、介護だけができる部分っていうの
が、やろうと思えば、変な話、介護福祉士を持って
なくても、ヘルパー１級、２級を持ってなくても、で
きる仕事じゃないですか。すごい、あいまいなところ
で、資格が、もしあったとしてもなくても、同じよう
な仕事は、やろうと思えばできるので、いい部分も
もちろんあるんです。明確な、看護師なら医療行為
とか、介護とか、福祉士ならこの行為っていうもの
がないので、介護の仕事って何って言われた時に、
はっきりしない部分が、やっぱりあるんじゃないか
な。
Masaya Shimmei
Realistic care management
The transcript 7g is an excerpt from the interview of a former caseworker in the local
authority bridging the ambiguity occurs in both managerial and technical cores. The
main point of the interpretation of this narrative is twofold. One is that she demarcates
between medical and social services in relations with clients’ conditions. The second is
that the speaker regards clients with higher medical needs to be more stable than clients
having difficulties in everyday life due to limited means, either being single or having
only family members of old age.
Transcript 7g. Realistic care management
Ito: I think the long-term care insurance is
supposed to support people’s lives. I’ve
heard some people argue that domestic care
should be excluded from the long-term care
insurance, and it seems that this was discussed
when the system was being developed. At
times I thought, ‘Maybe it makes sense.’ Well,
because… you definitely need domestic care.
Without it, you can’t live at home anymore
and have to go straight to a facility. Yet, I used
to think that other systems had better cover
domestic care if the long-term care insurance
no longer covers it. But the thing is, people
and situations in need of domestic care…
those are where care managers are needed the
most. Then, since care managers are attached
to the long-term care insurance, it seems more
realistic to keep domestic care in the system, as
a packaged service with care management, yes.
Interviewer: Realistic. I see.
Ito: In reality, I think care managers and homehelpers are the ones who help people live
at home. If we only take domestic care to
somewhere else, we need to create someone
like care managers separately. We also need
home-helpers to provide that kind of care. If
we did that; I mean, if we take domestic care
to somewhere else; care managers in the longterm care insurance system won’t have too
many roles, I think.
Interviewer: Hmmm.
Ito: As I said in the beginning, for people with
severe healthcare needs, we don’t have much
to do once we arrange healthcare-related
services.
Interviewer: Doctors will run the show.
[Origninal Japanese]
伊藤：わたしはね、介護保険っていうのはやっぱり生活
を支えるものだと思うんですね。それで、制度を作
るときにも議論されたらしいんですけど、生活援助
を介護保険から外したほうがいいんじゃないかっ
ていう意見があるそうで。で、わたしも、それはそう
かなと思った時期もあるんですよ。あのう、っていう
のは、生活、生活援助って絶対必要なんですよ。そ
れしないと皆さん在宅生活できなくて、いきなり施
設になっちゃ、なってしまいますので。ただ外すんで
あれば別の制度でやるっていう部分があるのかな
あっていうふうに考えたことがあるんですけど、ケア
マネジャーが一番必要とされてるのは、生活援助し
てる場面、あ、してる方々に対してケアマネが一番必
要だと思うんですよね。ですので、そうすと、ケアマ
ネジャーっていうのは介護保険に引っ付いてるもの
なので、やっぱり生活援助は残してケアマネとセット
で置いてくほうが現実的かなっていう気がしていま
すね、はい。
聞き手：現実的。なるほど
伊藤：もうケアマネジャーとヘルパーさんで在宅生活を
支えているっていう感じが現実にあると思いますの
で、生活援助だけをもしほかのとこに持っていくと
すると、ヘルパーさんだけじゃなくて、ケアマネジャ
ーのような役割をする人をまた別につくらないとい
けないと思うので。で、そっちへ持ってちゃうと、生
活援助を介護保険から外しちゃうと、ケアマネジャ
ーの、残ったケアマネジャーの役割というのは、あ
んまりないと思うんですよね。
聞き手：うーん。
伊藤：最初のほうでも申し上げましたけど、医療ニーズ
の高い人は、もう医療系のほうのサービスを入れち
ゃえば、そんなにこっちにはなんか大きな負担はな
い。
聞き手：医師の采配で。
伊藤：そうですね。
聞き手：もしくは看護師さんの采配で。
伊藤：そうですね。で、家族も大体きちっとしてますか
ら、もうそれでいっちゃうので。わたしたちが一番も
う大変なのは、生活援助が入っていて独居の方とか
高齢者世帯の方っていう方にしょっちゅういろいろ
問題があって駆り出されているという状況なので、
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
181
Ito: Right.
Interviewer: Or nurses will run the show.
Ito: True. And most families will also take care of
things, so things keep moving like that. The
hardest cases are people who need domestic
care, living alone or in the elderly households.
They tend to have problems all the time, and
we are pulled into these situations to take care
of them. So, I think domestic care can stay in
the long-term care insurance. Well, I think it
may be realistic.
生活援助は介護保険に残しても。残してもいいって
いうか、まあ、それが現実的かなあっていう気がし
ていますね。
Mrs. Ito stresses the realistic (genjitsutekina) area of care management practice,
which should be targeted at supporting the lives of elderly. When clients need medical
treatment, clients should be moved to medical services where the living conditions are
more secure. As most of the care managers have a background in social and care work,
they showed their reluctance to deal with clients with heavy medical needs. Instead, care
managers with social and care work background make sense of their work as helping the
daily chores of clients and tried to draw a line between medical and social issues.
As elder clients with terminal conditions need continuous oversight and intensive
medical care provision, most of the care managers with a social work background
and care workers refer clients to the medical field and send clients to hospital or local
outpatient clinics. This referral made by social work based care managers is often
regarded as far too early by nursing care managers because they are more accustomed
to medical situations and aware of the deficiency of hospitalisation; once hospitalised,
elderly clients’ physical function often declines so radically that nurse care managers
regard the hospitalisation is the last resort.
As the LTC policy enhances community care and the government reinforces policies
to discharge elderly with chronic conditions from hospital, the live of clients with
chronic conditions, even those with terminal situations, now reside in community care
settings. However, terminal care within the community still lacks adequate medical
provisions to deal with home visits and 24-hour nursing. Under such circumstances,
care managers seems to be required to bridge the policy objective and actual shortage of
medical services to support clients who need medical support. Care managers express
their anxiety and confusion about the technical ambiguity by demarcating their role.
In terms of professional differences, nursing is professionally situated under the
supervision of medical doctors in medical health insurance covered services and nurses
have relative autonomy in the LTCI covered services. As nurses have both medical
knowledge and are accustomed to dealing with patients in acute conditions, they have a
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Masaya Shimmei
relatively prominent position compared to social work and care workers. Social workers
and care workers’ skills of counselling and the ability to give attention to daily life have
been exploited because these needs are endless. What they have to accomplish under
such circumstance is to compromise and draw a line to make sense of what they should
do and not do. This sense making process, puts the care mangers, especially those with
a social and care worker background in a difficult situation.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
183
8 CARE MANAGERS’ PRACTICE
IN EVERYDAY LIFE
In this chapter, I analyse the thematic categorisation of the working experiences and
conditions of care managers in their daily working situations. The previous chapter
illustrated distinct features that appeared in the attributes of care management expertise
affected by organisational objectives by examining the use of terms such as ‘clients’.
However, it is not a simple process to describe how care managers develop the meaning
of profit making and create a balance with normative care management in their working
situations. Care managers make sense of their work with a combination of available
resources and objectives. Thus, to demonstrate this complexity I analyse care managers’
sense making process in their work in relation to their everyday practices.
To analyse descriptions of how they accomplish multiple tasks largely categorised
as actual/business/normative tasks, I try to see ‘care management’ as an occupation in
totality. In the first section, I analysed how the pressure of profit making and level of
salary influences the principles of human services. The second section illustrates how
flexible working styles in the non-profit sectors developed so that more women began to
work in flexible conditions to reconcile work and care situations due to the fact that they
are the central forces taking part in the social care market.
8.1 General Description of Care Management as Labour
In this section, I scrutinise the interrelationship of working conditions, working
environments and career development as the main themes derived from the initial
thematic analysis. The thematic analysis of how care managers define their workload
has relations with 1) discretion, 2) salary, 3) tasks, and 4) career development. These
sub-categories appeared in the story of care management as work. How care managers
define their work is demarcated in relation with gender relation in Japan.
During the course of the interviewing, my initial interest was to look at the differences
between organisational status and the meaning of profit in care service as a business.
I hypothesised that organisational differences would be seen as clearly different as in
narratives, but contrary to my expectations, I realised soon after the first interview that
184
Masaya Shimmei
the local awareness about profit varies widely by how each worker situates him/herself
in the organisational and household context. After reaching this awareness, I started
to look into career development issues and economic status in the household. When
looking back on the process, the way I have interpreted the meaning of profit does not
only have an organisational character but is also the individual’s background, career
development and the household. I was then able to recall from my personal experience
that I had the status as dependent family member. My experience of marriage developed
in myself a sense of how gender segregation is constructed in the Japanese family
customs and taxation system, which strongly maintained the gendered institution.
First, in terms of career development, the labour market in social care industries
in Japan is also gendered. Most of the home-helpers started their work with a week
training course. During the introductory period of the LTCI, these home-helpers were
eligible to become care managers. Considering this care work developments, for homehelpers and care workers, who actually set up care services, becoming a care manager
is part of climbing up the career ladder because they can earn more. However, when it
comes to nurses and local officials the story is completely different. Nursing in Japan
has developed a strong umbrella organisation and gradually acquired their current
secure professional position. They have a more systematic education and a protection
mechanism regarding their working conditions.
The same can be said about local officials. In this piece of research, I interviewed
two former local officials who had changed career for their husbands. Local authority
employers are well paid and they are tenured and have authority over the private sector.
The strong position of the public sector dominates over the private sector and is one of
the characteristics of the Japanese society. These two groups of care managers regard
themselves as downgraded in becoming a care manager. In order to understand why
more women opt to work in the social care industries, it is important to note that
structurally men continue to earn more than women in Japan. Hence, if they work,
they do it in a way so as not to distract their role to support their husbands or prioritise
husbands’ careers as a strategic way to maintain the household.
The number of cases each care manager handle is important. Care managers are
concerned with the quality of consultation services to clients and they are more willing
to obtain discretion. One of the important tasks of care manager is to ensure that he or
she maintains contacts with each client. The number of contacts by care managers also
directly influences the level of service satisfaction by clients.
However, in reality, the time of care managers is limited. In terms of workloads,
the LTCI regulations defines the maximum number of clients that care managers can
handle; the statue strictly regulates what care managers have to do during monthly
routine work. If they fail to meet the requirements, care managers lose care management
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
185
fees. Thus, the number of clients that each care manager handles is important both
in terms profit making for care management service providers as well as maintaining
the quality of workload. Each superintendent of care management provision tries to
persuade their employee care managers to keep 35 clients as the maximum number
in order to maximise care management fees. In addition, because care managers have
to work to cover administrative work, calculating the fees, evaluation and assessment,
they must have balance between clerical tasks and client visiting (Baba, 2004). Table 8.1
illustrates the labour input in hours. The frequencies of home visiting shares are highest
in total working hours whereas care plan making and filling in the assessment comes
second. Clerical tasks were comprised of fee claims paper works and other clerical work.
Home visiting requires intensive labour input, whereas clerical work also amounts to
about the same share in total (Mitsubishi Research Institute, 2011).
Table 8.1. Monthly Labour Input per Full-time Care Managers (n=50)
Categories
Visits
Coordination
Supporting LTCI
administration
Others
Contents of work
Hours
%
Clients
34.8
22
Others
6.7
4
Handling visitors
1.2
1
Assessment sheet & care plans
28.9
18
Phone
12.1
8
Coordination & meetings
11
7
Meeting (responsible service providers; consultation for
professional opinion)
6.8
4
Care management to other than own clients
2.5
2
Fee claims
6.5
4
Additional services (home renovation, assisting
devices, institutionalisation
1.5
1
Clerical tasks
13.8
9
Concurrent work other than care management
11.3
7
OJT, Seminars & Business Trips
10.3
6
Other tasks than making care plans
4.3
3
Management tasks
4.3
3
4.1
3
Others
Total
160
(Categories on the left column are added by the author, percentages rounded-off.)
Source: Mitsubishi Research Institute (2011), p.193.
Care managers draw lines and demarcate between statutory work and the extra
normative work as theorised as ideal care management. They control their workloads
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Masaya Shimmei
or leave the work place to cope with the pressures of profit making and public demands
to perform normative care management. Working at a for-profit business requires
overtime if care managers are asked to work as full-time but care managers can choose
to work part-time, where overtime is not required.
The narratives below suggest that care management work is both gendered and an
emotional task. In a given situation of commercialised and bureaucratic requirements
added for care managers, there is a fragmentation of care management as a practice that
constructed discourse among the three versions of ‘care management’; entrepreneurial,
bureaucratic and normative. Of these three versions, care managers had to deal with
an ambiguous position through own inner process, reflecting their career goals. For
some who seek self-actualisation, to prove themselves as an ethical being contributing
in the society, they are likely to be mobilised to account for their task as normative care
management and are trapped in the dilemma among different care management models
(see, Hochschild, 1983).
It is also worth noting that the salary of care managers differs from firm to firm.
Full-time care managers working in both profit making and non-profit organisations
have the sense of carrying an upper limit of cases in order to secure their salary and
the firm’s profit. However, the stories of care managers working in these organisations
express the need to limit their cases so that the latitude of time would be used to lower
the burden and used for consultation to clients. Interestingly, even cream skimming is
preferred, meaning selecting lighter rather than severe cases.
In terms of gender, male care managers talked about the more ambiguous nature
of their work in relation to other industries. Thus, care managers make sense of such
an act of drawing lines in terms of personal situation and reflecting career and relative
position in the household: being the breadwinner or double earning house hold. Some
may move to realise their social roles and become a street-level leader or exit the role of
care manager and become superintendent of the other providers or even control their
workload. Care managers who are housewives also utilise the current taxation system
to comply with her household situation. Having noticed the different gendered position
of care managers, part-time working care managers in non-profit organisations have
a different sense-making attitude to comply with both the pressures to increase cases
and the current taxation system. They make sense that profit making is necessary to
achieve organisational objectives, maintaining voluntary services not covered by the
LTCI system, however, they want to limit to income below the taxable income levels.
The meaning of practice among care managers differs by context, either by the
requirement of affiliated organisations and household situation of each worker. Often,
these different meanings of care manager’s work leads to indirect but important
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
187
consequences when considering the merits of clients through the quality and quantity
of care management provision in the community.
8.2 Three Coping Stories of Care Management Practices
In the following, I illustrate three stories of care managers: one male and two females.
What these stories reveal is that the culture of supporting gendered roles in society
reflects how they cope with their work. The first story is from a male care manager
and shows ambivalence toward both market ideology and expertise. The second story is
narrated by a nurse care manager who takes the liberty of both flexible working system
to strategically control workloads and status of tax exemption status for housewife. The
final story is from a former local authority employee who had to change her career
because of her marriage.
8.2.1
A state of ambivalence towards both the market and expertise
The transcript 8a is what I have called the entrepreneur story from an interview with
Mr. Okayama, in his early 30s and his wife is also a care manager and a certified social
worker. Mr. Okayama, being a certified care worker and care manager, had left the care
management office because it was impossible to maintain the household. He became the
supervisor of a service provider owned by a medical institute, which offered him a better
salary than working as a care manager.
Transcript 8a. The entrepreneur
Okayama (husband): And, I’ve never thought
of quitting my job in the welfare field. But
the other side of the coin is, welfare may be
the only field I can work in. So, I kind of feel
inferior.
Interviewer: Oh, do you?
Okayama (husband): I can’t say for sure because
I have no outside experience. But I think
the welfare field is more lenient than other
businesses.
Interviewer: Is that so?
Okayama (husband): Yes. I think there are
differences, and maybe there’s something
unique about this field.
188
[Origninal Japanese]
岡山（夫）：・・・あとは、福祉の仕事を辞めようかと思
ったときは、今までないですけども、逆に裏を返せ
ば、今、自分が、何ができるかっていったら、福祉以
外できないんじゃないかなっていう、少し劣等感に
も似た気持ちはありますね。
聞き手：あっ、そうなんですか。
岡山（夫）：外の社会を経験したわけじゃないので、は
っきりは言えないですけども、やっぱり普通の企業
に比べたら、福祉の業界って甘いと思うんですね。
聞き手：そうなんですかね。
岡山（夫）：そうですね。やっぱり違う部分はあると思う
んですけど、独特なのかなっていう部分が、あるか
もしれないですね。
聞き手：独特。それは、どういうふうに独特だというふう
にお感じですか。
Masaya Shimmei
Interviewer: Unique. How do you feel it’s unique?
Okayama (husband): In the field of care, I think
we do get paid for the services we provide,
just like any other businesses. But in most
cases, people come to us because facilities and
services are available, they want to use them;
like day care, short-stay and institutional care;
and they ask us whether they can use these
services. It’s fundamentally different from
other businesses, where companies reach out
to potential customers to sell their products.
It’s a little strange, but for example, let’s say
you are selling water. You’ll say this water is
good for such and such, it is great because
of this and that, and this water is from this
and that place. You have so many things to
say about your products. Then customers
choose from many products. But in the field
of welfare, well, many organisations must be
making marketing efforts, but as far as I have
experienced, we can get enough customers
without much effort. We are in that kind of
environment. We can survive, and customers
do come to us without much marketing effort.
But I have an image that other companies
are not like that, perhaps. They cut costs and
improve quality of their products. Otherwise,
people won’t buy them. So, my guess is that
they make every effort to achieve results. And I
think every worker understands that situation.
In welfare facilities, there must be
business-conscious people too, of course. But
there, you have managers, counsellors who
may be working on sales and marketing, and
care workers who are separated from the
business aspect. I’ve never heard care workers
talking about sales this month, and I don’t
think they even think about such a thing. I
don’t think they do, also at the facility I now
work, of course. I don’t think they are working
while thinking like, our monthly sales were
such and such, whether they work for a shortstay service, institution or day care centre.
Interviewer: That is, as frontline care workers.
Okayama (husband): Since the system was
transformed from Sochi (government-led) to
contracts (consumer-led), you may expect that
provider organisations would make business
efforts and things would change. But that’s not
really the case. As far as direct care workers are
concerned, I don’t think things have changed.
岡山（夫）：まず介護のところは、基本的に違うのは、普
通の営業とかものを売る商売として考えたときに、
確かに、行ったサービスに対しての対価は頂いてい
ると思うんですよ。ただそれは、わたしたちが、こん
な商品ですよってアピールをして買ってもらったも
のよりは、どちらかというと、その地域にそういった
建物があって、そういったサービスがあって、福祉
を、デイサービスとかショートステイとか、入所とか
というサービスを使いたい人がいて、どっちかとい
うと向こうの方から、ここを使えますかというふうに
することが、やっぱり圧倒的に多いと思うんですよ
ね、買っていただくよりも来ていただいてるものだ
から。変な話、そこまでも、例えば、お水とかでもい
いんですけど、お水だったら、これは効能があって、
こんないい商品で、こっから取れたものなんですっ
ていうのが、たぶんいくつもあるわけじゃないです
か。そっから選んで買っていただくんですけども、
福祉のところでそこまでの営業努力って、してると
ころは、たくさんしてるんでしょうけども、今まで経
験した中では、そこまでしなくても来ていただける
環境にあると思うんですね。そうしてもやっていけ
ちゃう部分だし、企業努力をそこまでしなくても来
ていただいている。でもイメージからして普通の企
業ってそうじゃないですよね、たぶん。コストを抑え
て、ものを良くしてくれないと、やっぱり買ってくれ
ないし、そのための努力っていうのは、たぶん惜し
まずにやってると思うんですけど、そこがもちろんあ
ります。それで結果が現れてくるじゃないですか。
それをたぶん、働いてる職員全員が、把握してるん
ではないかなとは思うんです。
ただ、福祉の施設って、意識の高い人はもち
ろんされてると思うんです。経営者がいて、そこに営
業的な部分だと思うんですけども、相談員的な立場
の人間がいて、そことはまた別に介護職員がいるっ
ていう形になっちゃってるんですね。じゃ、介護職
員が、いや、今月の売り上げ、いくらだったよってい
う話は聞いたこともないし、たぶん考えてはいない
と思うんです。今の施設ももちろんそうなんですけ
ども、そこは考えてないですね。自分が１カ月働い
たときに、ショートステイ、入所の方が、デイサービ
スもそうですけど、入ってきたときに、１カ月こんだ
け売り上げがあるんだっていう感覚では、働いてな
いと思う。
聞き手：介護の現場としてですね。
岡山（夫）：措置から介護保険に変わって、企業努力の
中で、もちろんしていく中で、それが変わってるかっ
ていったら、そんなに大きく変わってはいない。直
接介護をする人間の現場だけでいうと、変わっては
いないんじゃないかな。
聞き手　：それはひいては、利用者さんの不利益に、つ
ながってるんじゃないかっていうふうにも、お考え
なんでしょうか。
岡山（夫）：これはちょっと難しい、違ったところがある
かもしれない。お金がこんだけ入ってるからやるん
だっていう見方では、もちろん福祉に勤める、介護
する人たちは違うと思うんで、たぶんあってもなくて
も、そこの部分はそんなに大きな変化はないんじゃ
ないかな。直接その利用者さんに対して、お金をい
ただいてるからとかっていうふうなのが、思ったとし
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
189
Interviewer: Do you also think that will eventually
become a disadvantage for service users?
Okayama (husband): It’s hard to say, maybe a
little different. I don’t think care workers in
the welfare field are working like, I’m doing
this because I receive this and that amount
of money. With or without it, there isn’t that
much difference, I guess. Even if a care worker
feels directly toward service users that she/he
receives money from them, I don’t think her/
his mentality is not that different from those
who don’t feel that way.
Interviewer: Then, when you mentioned
management issues, did you bring it up because
you think we need to change the industry to
improve workers’ pay?
Okayama (husband): I’m not thinking that big.
But if all the workers in a facility are somewhat
aware of this aspect, they can increase revenue
and cut some costs, I think.
ても、たぶん、変な話、大差はない、気持ちの部分
では。
聞き手：すると、この経営の問題があるということは、自
分たちの待遇をもっと良くするために、業界を変え
た方がいいんじゃないかっていうお考えから、こう
いう話しが出てきてるんでしょうか。
岡山（夫）：そんな大それたことは、考えていないんです
けど、例えば施設の枠でいったら、みんなが、たぶ
んある程度その気持ちがあれば、収入を増やすこ
ともできるし、支出を少し削ることもできるとは思う
んです。
To me, Mr. Okayama is vacillating between two different objectives set by the LTCI
system. One objective is to implement efficiency and make a profitable business and
the other is to perform normative public services to realise fairness. An institutional
background of this talk is that the each provider largely determines the salary levels and
fringe benefits of a person working in the LTCI service sector. The peculiarity of the talk
is that the speaker developed his argument to support the critiques of the speaker’s own
professional background in social and care work by substituting the terms and logic of
business models. The speaker thinks the social welfare industry (shakaifukushi-gyôkai)
is too optimistic or dependent (amai) but at the same time the speaker expressed that
he feels incompetent with the business culture compared to other friends, but he likes
to be with old people. Japanese word amai means sweet in origin but it also has the
connotation of too optimistic or dependent character of a person. The word kôritsu
is often used to express economic efficiency. For the speaker, social welfare became
one of the industries to think about efficiency (kôritsu) in order to make the wage level
comparable to other business sector.
In contrast to the above efficiency talk, I posed the question of how such profit
making and efficiency ideas are affecting clients. The speaker responded that the workers
have different axes of values which are not influenced by the act of earnings or profit
making so that in the speaker’s view, workers would not be affected by such an idea, in
thoughts and in spirit or emotionally (kimochi no bubun dewa). This sentence reflects
his ambivalence towards how the profit making culture in the caring business sector.
190
Masaya Shimmei
The story suggests that the speaker demonstrates a different logic compared to the logic
of the profit making culture, using wording such as in (his) heart or in emotional part of
the speaker. Having said this, his way of the talk also reveals connotation that practically
the culture of the service providers and regions may possibly affect workers response
to clients (Sennett, 2011). As two different concepts such as fairness and efficiency are
juxtaposed in the content of single notion such as ‘care’ and no guidelines are given to
judge which is superior to each other, care managers start to make sense of their work
in relation to their context. In this excerpt, the care manager went to the direction of
earning enough income to support his family, as a breadwinner. To comply with this
familial obligation, for him, the sector has to actualise efficiency and make more profits,
similar to that of other industries.
8.2.2 Making a balance within autonomy, workloads and household
The second excerpt I introduce is called the life work balance story, taken from the
narrative of Mrs. Ôhashi, a care manager with nursing certificate (transcript 8b). She is
in her mid-50s with a husband and children. Mrs. Ôhashi, care manager and a nurse, is
working as a part-time care manager in a non-profit organisation.
Transcript 8b. Coping strategy to maintain life-work balance
[Origninal Japanese]
Interviewer: (The deadline is) 10th, correct? So,
you’re supposed to be really busy today, aren’t
you?
Ôhashi: No, not really. You may have already heard
about it, but I don’t have too many cases.
Interviewer: Oh, I see. Each care manager usually
has 35 cases, correct?
Ôhashi: That’s right. I work within the limit as a
dependent family member. So, I may not be a
good interview subject.
Interviewer: Oh, you’re fine. I see, as a dependent
family member. Are all the workers like that?
Ôhashi: Yes.
Interviewer: So, how many cases do you have?
Ôhashi: Right now, 14.
Interviewer: And there are 3 care managers? Or
how many?
Ôhashi: There are 7.
Interviewer: Seven care managers. Then each of
you has 14 cases?
Ôhashi: But the total number is 70… how many?
Maybe a little less than 80.
聞き手：10日までですよね。今日は、じゃ、大変ですよ
ね。本当は。
大橋：でも、そんなに。お聞きになってるかと思うんです
けど、たくさん担当してないので。
聞き手：ああ、それは。普通、今は35人ですよね。一人当
たり。
大橋：そうです。ほとんど扶養の範囲で働いてますの
で。だからちょっと調査対象としては、あれかもし
れないですけど。
聞き手：いえいえ、そんなことはないです。扶養の範囲、
はい。皆さん、そうなんですか。　大橋：そうです。
聞き手：そうすると何人ぐらい担当。
大橋：今、14です。
聞き手：３人いらしゃる。何人いらっしゃるんですか。
大橋：７人。
聞き手：７人ケアマネさんいらっしゃる。で、皆さんそれ
ぞれ14ですか。
大橋：でも全部で七十…いくつだろう…80弱ぐらいです
かね。
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
191
Interviewer: 80?
Ôhashi: Usually, 2 full-time care managers can
take care of them. But I think I have some
leeway at work.
Interviewer: What’s the maximum number you
have had so far?
Ôhashi: About 16, I guess.
Interviewer: Is it still hard? Having 16 cases?
Ôhashi: Yes, pretty hard. Since I’m a nurse, I get
the ones with severe needs.
Interviewer: Ah.
Ôhashi: When I get these cases, it’s pretty hard.
Interviewer: Having 35 cases…
Ôhashi: No way! (laugh) It’s unthinkable.
Interviewer: Unthinkable?
Ôhashi: Right.
Interviewer: Hmmm, I see. Now, from what time
to what time do you work?
Ôhashi: It’s not fixed. I make my own schedule.
Interviewer: Then, you work from Monday to… 5
days a week?
Ôhashi: Six days… about 6.
Interviewer: You work 6 days a week?
Ôhashi: I have shorter working hours, but I do
work about 6 days a week.
Interviewer: Then, how many hours a day do you
work on average?
Ôhashi: Let’s see. Since I work within the limit
as a dependent, I hope to get things done by
working around 80 hours a month. But I may
be working a little longer.
<Skip>
Interviewer: Ms Ôhashi, are you a nurse now, or a
care manager?
Ôhashi: A care manager (laugh).
Interviewer: Why is that? A care manager, not a
nurse?
Ôhashi: Yes, that’s right.
Interviewer: But if you decide to stay here, would
you like to work as a nurse or a care manager?
Ôhashi: For now, a care manager, I guess. But you
know how the economy is. So, I think I would
have no choice but to work as a nurse if my
husband were laid off.
Interviewer: Why is that?
Ôhashi: Probably, I won’t be able to work full time
here. There’re many workers already.
Interviewer: How about working as a care manager
at a private organisation, for example?
Ôhashi: I’ve heard that I’d have to work overtime, a
lot, if I had over 30 cases. So, it wouldn’t be the
kind of life for me.
192
聞き手：80人(？)
大橋：普通の居宅の常勤としては２人ちょっとぐらいの
仕事しかしてない形なんですけど、でも余裕を持っ
て仕事が出来てるかなって。
聞き手：最大で持って今まで何人(？)
大橋：16ぐらいですか。
聞き手：それでも大変ですか。16人、ケースが。
大橋：そうです、結構。やっぱり看護師なので重い人が
付くんですよ。
聞き手：あっ。
大橋：そういう人がちょっとつく時は結構大変です。
聞き手：35を持つという…
大橋：持てません。
（笑）考えられません。
聞き手：考えられない（？）
大橋：はい
聞き手：うーん、そうか。今、お仕事は何時から何時まで
ですか。
大橋：時間は特に。自分のフレックスで。
聞き手：で、月、毎週…月、週５日いらっしゃって（？）
大橋：６日、だいたい６日。
聞き手：週６日いらっしゃってる（？）
大橋：短時間でも６日ぐらいは動いて、私はいますん
で。
聞き手：そうすると１日平均どのぐらい、お仕事されてい
ますか（？）
大橋：どうでしょうね？扶養の範囲って考えたら、１ヶ月
80時間ぐらいで終わればいいなとは思ってるんで
すけど、やっぱりちょっと、もうちょっといってるかな
と思うんですけど。
＜途中省略＞
聞き手：大橋さん、今、看護師さんですか？　ケアマネ
ージャーさんですか。
大橋：ケアマネです（笑）
聞き手：それは、どうしてですか。看護師じゃなくてケア
マネですか。
大橋：そうです。そうですね。
聞き手：でも自分がここでやっていこうと思ったら看護
師でしょうか？ケアマネでしょうか。どちらとして仕
事をしていきたいでしょうか？
大橋：今はケアマネですかね。でもほら、経済情勢がこ
うなので、もし主人が会社でもクビになったら看護
師するしかないかなとは思ってるんですけども。
聞き手：なぜですか、それは。
大橋：ちょっと多分、ここでは常勤として多分働けない
ので。人数もたくさんいますし。
聞き手：例えば民間の事業所でケアマネとして働くって
いうことについては？
大橋：もう30件超えたらもう残業、すごい残業をしない
と出来ないっていう話を聞いてますので、ちょっと
生活していかれないかな。
Masaya Shimmei
Interviewer: So, not only money but also time is
important in reality?
Ôhashi: Ah, yes. Really important.
聞き手：すると、お金だけではなくて、実際は時間という
のも大切（？）
大橋：ああ、そうです。すごい大事。
When the LTCI was inaugurated, non-profit organisations were regarded to occupy one
of the central service sectors in the community. However, the distribution of the active
participation of these organisations is partial. Urban areas and suburbs have more nonprofits than rural areas. The non-profits are regarded as a citizen participation gateway
for making local democracy work. Participants are basically housewives who prefer
flexible working hours. In this instance, the non-profit organisations contributing to
LTCI service provision offered the opportunity to increase both the amount of local jobs
and volunteers in the social care sector.
The speaker uses the word fuyô no hani de, meaning within the dependency status
in taxation system, to explain how she limits her workload, concretely meaning the
number of clients. In order for her to remain within dependent family (hi-fuyô-sha),
she cannot earn more than 1.03 million JPY (8,100€) annually. Hence, the workload for
her has to be contained within this limits in order to benefit from tax exemption as well
as coverage of pension and medical insurance premiums: The premium is paid by her
husband’s salary and company as she is categorised as dai-sangô-hihokensha, a category
of special insured status for dependent spouses with premium payment exemptions for
the public pension scheme.
The speaker also considers her intentional limitations of workload to provide
better service for clients because when she limits the number of clients, she can work
intensively with difficult cases with more time and attention paid to them. The speaker
then continues that she regards her identity to be as care manager rather than a nurse
but would consider going back to nursing if her husband would lose his job. The
speaker links her choice of work to the economic situation. Actually, this interview
was conducted around the time of the so-called the Lehman shock, the rapid global
economic downturn triggered by the financial crisis in the Wall Street. The possibility
of the speaker’s husband’s being laid off due to the deterioration of economy meant
that the speaker reluctantly had to make a choice to return to full-time work as a nurse
rather than a part-time care manager because the income level of a nurse is higher than
that of a care manager.
It should be noted here that sharing housework between husband and wife is not
so common in Japan compared to the practices of Nordic countries. The Japanese
government recently proposed number of measures to support women to work a full-
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
193
time basis. The current ruling government LDP is making a media campaign to promote
policies for a women friendly society. For example, one of the newspaper writes, ‘Prime
Minister Shinzô Abe told an audience of female business executives, both Japanese
and foreign, that he is committed to increasing the number of women in the workforce
to help boost Japan’s ailing economy’ (Aoki, 2014). However, changing the balance of
unpaid labour in the household has only just begun.
The speaker and I continued to talk about what would happen if she would choose a
position as a full-time care manager. Apparently, the speaker selects and draws a clear
line to amount of her workload, based on both her willingness to keep time for daily life
and maximising her husband’s income to keep the household. To keep a tax exemption
for husbands, the income of housewives should be kept below about one million JPY per
annum and it exempts pension and medical insurance premium payment. This taxation
and social security system offers a place for sense making to limit her work to a certain
level. This is a contradictory situation to me because this gendered taxation system
allows her to keep a very close eye on each client as she limits the number of cases to
handle. Her willingness to contribute to the community is based on the rational decision
to make a balance between securing time and resources to cope with the institutional
boundaries set to give fringe benefits to housewives.
8.2.3 Making sense of being less authoritative status
The transcript 8c is what I have termed the career diversion story told by Mrs. Ito during
an early phase of the research. Mrs. Ito was a former caseworker who worked at one of
the local authorities in the Tokyo metropolitan region and currently works for a nonprofit organisation located at two-hour train ride from Tokyo. Her story stimulated my
understanding of how gender affects career development in the realm of social welfare.
Her story represents her ambivalent attitude towards the way publicly assigned
roles are conveyed by the private sector without the authorities. The speaker had
worked as caseworker in Tokyo and after her marriage, she became a care manager
after successfully becoming a certified social worker. I had interviewed her twice for
approximately six hours, the speaker compared the role of the care manager to that
of caseworker and concluded that common feature between ‘care management’ and
casework is consultative work. However, what differed most between these two was the
following. Case managers in municipality perceived as acting public officials (okami)
and it implies that caseworkers have discretionary power over clients. Care managers,
on the other hand, have been accepted as private persons (minkan) and it makes them
work harder than being a municipal government employee. The speaker considers
that care managers have a similar intake function as caseworkers but discretion and
194
Masaya Shimmei
perception from the public is completely different in the management of their task (also
see, Satyamurti, 1981).
Transcript 8c. Career diversion between the public and the private sectors
[Origninal Japanese]
Interviewer: You mentioned ‘dependability’ of
private organisations. But when service users
count on these organisations, won’t they
become more dependent, compared with when
the government was working with them?
Ito: No, not really. On the contrary, they seem to
feel that they are equal. So, it’s easier for them
to make requests. When they were with the
government, they were positioned lower rather
than equal. So, it’s not easy for them to say
things.
Interviewer: Not easy to say.
Ito: Maybe it’s not easy for them to say what they
want. But it’s easier for us to elicit service users’
needs if we are on an equal footing, like ‘I’d
like you to do this,’ ‘This is how I like this to
be done,’ ‘Can’t you do this?’ and ‘Can’t you do
that?’
Interviewer: From your actual work experiences,
which position is easier for you to work in?
The situation may have been a little different
because public assistance involves monetary
benefits, but I will appreciate your input.
Ito: That’s easy to work on too. For me, being a
public worker is definitely easier, if I compare
the two.
Interviewer: Hmmm.
Ito: You have more pain if you work in the private
sector. But as a public worker, you eventually
get used to your position. So, now as I look
back, I don’t think I was doing a good job.
From the beginning, service users look up to
us from the bottom. Once we get used to it,
we need to discipline ourselves. Otherwise,
we will take an easy way, making our lives
easy but leaving service users in trouble. So,
we have to review and discipline ourselves all
the time. I think that’s how public workers are.
It’s not just me. Their jobs are protected, and
they’ll be transferred if anything happens.
Interviewer: Ah, disciplining yourself.
Ito: Yes. But most of public workers can’t do that.
You often call it ‘bureaucratic work,’ don’t you?
Interviewer: Yes.
Ito: I think they often fall into that situation.
We wouldn’t have much of a problem if,
聞き手：民間の団体の「信頼」という言葉をおっしゃい
ましたけど、むしろ、利用者から信頼されると、行政
の場合よりは、依存的になるとか、そういったような
ことはないですか。
伊藤：いや、そういうことはあんまりないんですけど、逆
にっていうか、対等な感じは持ってくださるので、向
こうはこういろんな要求とか出しやすいですよね。
こっちが役所というと向こうは最初からこう、対等と
いうよりも下の立場に立たれるので、何でも言いに
くい。
聞き手：言いにくい。
伊藤：要求を言いにくいということあると思うんですけ
ど、やっぱり対等な立場で、
「もっとあれをこうして
ほしい」と、
「こうしてほしい」と、
「こうできないの」
「ああできないの」っていうお客様ニーズは引き出
しやすいっていう面はあると思いますね。
聞き手：実際、仕事をされてみて、どちらの立場で仕事
をしてたときのほうが仕事をしやすいと思われます
か。生保の場合は、給付、金銭の給付なんかも伴っ
てちょっと違うかとも思うんですけれども、教えて
いただければと思います。
伊藤：それも仕事がしやすい。じ、自分はどっちが楽か
といえば公務員のほうが断然楽ですよね。
聞き手：ふーん。
伊藤：苦労は民間のほうがありますよね。だけど公務員
の場合は、そういうことに結局は自分が慣れてしま
いますから、いい仕事はあまり、あの自分では今思
うとね、いい仕事はできてなかったと思いますね。
結局、自分で、もう利用者さんは最初っからこう、下
のほうから自分を見上げてくれるわけですから、
それに慣れてしまうと自分で自分を律していかない
と、仕事がもう楽なほうに流れていけば、自分は楽
だけど利用者さんは困っているという状況になるわ
けですよね。ですから、自分をいつもいつも見つめ
直してきちんと律していかないと。公務員ってそうだ
と思うんですよ。わたしに限らず、身分保証あるわ
けですからってか、ちょっと何かあれば異動して行
っちゃうわけなので。
聞き手：ああ、自分で自分を律する。
伊藤：そうですね。やっぱり公務員の方っていうのはそ
れができないので、お、お、お役所仕事って基本的
に言いますよね。
聞き手：はい。
伊藤：そういうふうになってしまうと思うんです。で、例え
ば「住民票をください」と言われて「はい」って出す
仕事なら、そんなに大きな影響はないと思うんです
けど、やっぱり利用者さん困っている。ま、福祉関
係の特に仕事ですと、やっぱりそういう。こっちが、
おも、あの、自分の仕事っていうのを自分を律して
こう、やっていくんだっていう気持ちがないと、困っ
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
195
for example, the worker’s job was to issue a
certificate of residency when requested, like
‘Here you go.’ But in the welfare field, service
users are in trouble, you know. So, unless
we discipline ourselves and consciously put
ourselves in the shoes of people in trouble, the
quality of our job will keep falling. Since I’m
that kind of person, I think I’m doing a better
job now. Yes, really. If I try to cut corners, I’ll
get direct feedback, or I should say criticisms.
Interviewer: Yeah, yeah, direct feedback.
Ito: Yes.
Ito: Well, actually, I majored in law when I was in
college. So, legal compliance is unquestionable
for me, really. Another thing is self-protection.
After all, it had been more important to protect
myself, prioritising my position as a public
worker.
Interviewer: Yeah, I see.
Ito: Yes.
Interviewer: Well, didn’t you have any, something
like, troubles?
Ito: Oh, yes. A lot, of course.
Interviewer: Difficult.
Ito: True, true, yes.
Ito: I often compare the situation to a pendulum.
It goes all the way this way, then it turns back,
right?
Interviewer: Yes, a pendulum.
Ito: It’s like that. I totally believe that analogy now.
I now belong to a non-profit organisation.
So, it doesn’t matter anymore if something is
against the law. If someone is in trouble, that’s
the priority for me and I should do something
to resolve the problems. Well, for older people,
it could be life-and-death.
Interviewer: That’s true.
Ito: Well, that’s my basic idea now. But care
managers like that will create a moral hazard
at work, especially in the home help service.
So, if I can take care of things by myself, I’d
be like ‘That’s OK.’ But if I have to have homehelpers do something, I’ll have to think twice
about how far I can go.
Interviewer: Yeah.
Ito: They have rules to follow, so it’s really hard
for me to figure out where to compromise.
Basically, I do think we should comply with
the law. We should. But what if the law doesn’t
fit the real situation? We need to be flexible
to a certain extent. I think that’s also the
intent of the law. The law needs to set a net,
so it puts a rule on everything. Otherwise,
196
てる人の立場に立とうって気持ちがないと、もう、ど
んどん仕事の質が落ちてしまいますので、わたしな
んか結構そういうタイプなので、今のほうがいい仕
事ができ、自分はいい仕事ができているなっていう
のは思いますけど。もうほんとに、ストレートに、こ
ちらが手を抜いたりとかですねすると、もうそれは
もう批判されますので、ストレートに返ってきます
から。
聞き手：うん、うん、ストレートに返ってくる。
伊藤：はい。
伊藤：いや、それはもうわたしね、大学、法学部だったこ
ともあって、もう法令遵守なんですよ、ほんとに。御
身大切ということもあるんですけど、結局は自分の
身を守るほうが大事だったので、もうそれは、ま、公
務員としての立場優先ですよね。
聞き手：うん、なるほど。
伊藤：はい。
聞き手：あのう、こう、波風はやっぱり。
伊藤：ああ、随分、もちろん。
聞き手：難しい。
伊藤：そうです、そうです、はい。
伊藤：わたしはですね、割とよく、振り子ね。一番こっち
に振れたものが一番こっちに振れるって言いますで
しょう。
聞き手：はい、振り子。
伊藤：そういう感じでですね、今はそういう考え方は全
面的にしてですね、今わたしが、しょ、し、所属して
いる団体がＮＰＯ団体ということもありますので、も
う関係ないじゃんっていうんで、困ってること優先
っていう考え方なんですよ、わたしは。もう、法令に
触れようが何しようが、もう困ってる人がいれば、そ
れを解消してあげなきゃいけないんじゃないかっ
て。まあ、お年寄りの場合命にかかわることもあり
ますので。
聞き手：そうですね。
伊藤：もう、そういう考え方なんです、基本は。ただそう
いう考え方だと、ケアマネがそういうことだと現場、
特に訪問介護はモラルハザードしちゃうので、あた
し一人で何とかできることなら「まあいいや」ってい
うのがあるんですけど、自分が指示してヘルパーさ
んにやっていただくっていうことは、そこら辺の加減
がですね。
聞き手：うん。
伊藤：きちんと、守っていただくことは守っていた、いた
だくっていうふうにしていかないといけないので、非
常にそのすり合わせが難しいところなんですよ。基
本は、法令は守んなきゃいけない気持ちはあるん
ですよ。守らなきゃいけないけども、でも、やっぱり
それは現場に合わない場合にどうするかっていっ
たら、それは、ある程度ね。それも、が法の趣旨で
もあると思うんです。やっぱり法の趣旨は網掛けな
いと制度は動いていかないから何でも決めてある
んだけど、趣旨として。法の趣旨ってありますよね。
法ってのは何でももう趣旨があるわけなので、法の
趣旨としてはそうじゃないだろうと。こういう場合
はこうでいいんじゃないかっていう感じなんですけ
ど、そこがなかなか。その思いをまたヘルパーさん
にうまく伝えていかないとっていうのもありますし、
現実にもしあんまりひどいこと。あんまりひどいっ
Masaya Shimmei
systems wouldn’t function. But every law has
its purposes, correct? So, if the law intends to
achieve this goal, I would say why couldn’t we
go this way instead of that way in such and
such cases? That’s the tough part. I also need
to communicate this to home-helpers, but it’s
extremely hard. If we don’t follow the rules, as
service provider organisations, other provider
organisations may get penalties, like getting
lower reimbursements and being charged. So,
since the law has set a net, we can’t break it so
easily.
Interviewer: Hmmm.
Ito: So, despite how I feel, the system doesn’t allow
us to break the net. Well, now, organisations
may even lose their license. That’s the direction
we are heading.
Interviewer: That’s true.
Ito: If that happens, it’ll be a disaster. So, we can’t
break it.
Interviewer: I see. One thing I’d like to ask you is
about the idea of a pendulum you mentioned,
especially about its turning point. I suppose a
pendulum has a turning point to go the other
way. What was your turning point, Ms Ito?
You went all the way to the extreme, then…
Ito: Yes, yes, yes.
Interviewer: Then, you reached the turning point
and came back. What triggered the turningback, at what point?
Ito: Ah, that was when I quit my job as a public
worker.
Interviewer: Hmmm.
Ito: Well, my father was also a public worker. And
when I started a job as a public worker, I wanted
to keep that job until the retirement. So, when
I quit, it was a really big deal. People may think
‘For such a small thing?’ but it was a really big
decision for me to make. It was like, ‘I’m losing
my steady job’ or ‘I’m losing a job.’ So, to be
honest, I was like, ‘I don’t know how to live.’
I’d be wearing different clothes, and my entire
life would be changing, like what I’d wear,
what I’d eat and where I’d live. I’d be living in
a totally different value system. I felt like, ‘How
in the world would I live?’ and ‘What would
I become?’ because I had to change my entire
value. My value had been set as a public worker
until then. If you had asked me, ‘Who are you?’
I would have answered, ‘I’m a public worker.’
But that’s all gone, completely. Although I was
a public worker at the bottom of a pyramid.
ていうか、あの、枠を外れてしまうと、事業者とし
て、ほかの事業者が減算とか摘発されるとかそうい
うこともありますから、そこの網が掛かってるから、
そういう、おのずと破れないっていう。
聞き手：うーん。
伊藤：だから、わたしの気持ちはそうなんですけど、破
れない仕組みになってんですね。げ、あの、今、事
業所のね認可を取り消すとかそういう方向になっち
ゃってますね。
聞き手：そうですね。
伊藤：それがもうやられちゃうともう大変なことなので。
だから破れないですけどね。
聞き手：なるほど。一つ僕がお伺いしたいなと思うの
は、振り子っていう、考えをおっしゃっていて、その
ターニングポイトですね。振り子がこう振れるター
ニングポイントがあると思うんですけども、何が伊
藤さんの中でターニングポイントになったんでしょ
うか。この、極まで行って。
伊藤：はい、はい、はい。
聞き手：それが振れるって戻ってきたわけですけれど
も、どこの時点でそれがもどる、きっかけは何だっ
たんでしょうか。
伊藤：はー、それはやっぱり公務員をやめたからですよ
ね。
聞き手：うーん。
伊藤：あのう、わたし、父も公務員で、もう公務員を定年
までやりたいというのが、人生のこの就職したとき
にそういうふうに決めていたので、もう公務員をや
めたときというのはもう。ま、ほかの方は「そんなこ
と」と思われるかもしれないけど、非常に大きな決
断だったんですね。もう仕事を、定職を失うという
かね、仕事を失うっていうことだったので、はっきり
言って、どうやって生きていけばいいか分からない
みたいな。もう着るものも変わってきちゃうし、衣食
住全部変わっちゃうっていう感じがまあ、自分の価
値観を揺すぶられてもね。どうやっ、何を自分はこ
れから、どういう、何になって生きていくんだってい
うのが分からないみたいな感じがあったし。だから
こう、自分の価値観自体を全部変えなきゃいけなか
ったので。だから自分の価値観をもう、わたしは公
務員として存在していたんですね、それまでは。
「
あなたは何者ですか」と。
「わたしは公務員です」
っていうだったんですね。それがもう根底からなく
なっちゃって。末端の自治体の公務員でしたけれど
も。
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197
I started to ask her what it is like to be working in private non-profit organisation.
The speaker began to consider working in a private sector means no authority or no
discretion (kengen ga nai) compared to being a public official. She looked back as she had
to quit working as a local official because she followed her husband as he was transferred
abroad. She eventually sought another way to cope with the abandonment of her career
by successfully passing the examination to become a certified social worker after one
year of study and became a care manager.
Admittedly, two other care managers who climbed the ladder from home-helper to
care manager who used to work for their own family businesses but bankruptcy, they
were forced to work in the social care sector. One of the husbands is employed in the
same LTCI service providers with the interviewee. This situation reminds me of the
discussion of the career ladder strategy, which anticipates subjective efforts to tackle
precarious job markets reinforced by the neo-liberal reform of the labour market. The
speakers who regarded their move to care managers as a positive career development
had come into the work because of households’ economic situation.
There is clear difference of class among care workers because the Japanese labour
market for caring is basically meant to develop employment for the lower economic
strata (see also, Fitzgerald, 2006). However, Mrs. Ito, who was brought up in a family of
a public sector employee, made a career as a government employee and tackled to study
law at a well-known university. She had to discontinue her career and experienced a
value change because of her relative position in the household led her to make sense of
her discontinuation of career through bitter experiences.
Particularly notable for Mrs. Ito’s story is how she regards her becoming an ordinary
common person without any authority. The transcript 8d vividly demonstrates such a
process.
Transcript 8d. Making sense of career diversion
Ito: Yes, really. It may sound strange, but I felt
like I’d become an ordinary common person,
without any authority.
Interviewer: Authority.
Ito: Hmmm…maybe this means I reflected on my
job? Well, maybe it’s rather a good thing?
198
[Origninal Japanese]
伊藤：いや、ほんとに。変な言い方ですけど、普通の民
間、普通の人になっちゃって何の権限もない人にな
っちゃったんだなっていう。
聞き手：権限。
伊藤：うう、ときにやっぱり自分の仕事……、振り返った
ってことなのかしらー、うーん、むしろそれがよかっ
たのかなあ。
Masaya Shimmei
The above talk exemplifies process of reframing by the speaker. It made me aware that the
LTCI derived social care market was the last resort for having her career back on track
again. In the rather long interview, twice the speaker did not attribute her ambivalent
attitude towards a private sector job to the diversion or the discontinuity of her career
in order to prioritise her husband’s in the initial phase of the interview. However, the
speaker gradually came to a certain point where she sensed the diversion of career in
terms of continuity not as a rupture of her life. In the interview process, the speaker
eventually made sense of the discontinuation of her work history where her current
position in the private sector has no authority being totally different from the previous
one. At the same time she feels that she now offers help to people who need care. This
process of storytelling made her become aware of positive side of her career change.
As the Japanese society has a long history of kanson-minpi, accepting the idea of the
authorities as superior over citizens, the local authorities are located in a higher position
than providers. As matter of fact, it is mostly private sectors belongs to be enabled and
controlled to make the welfare mix in the community function. The exception is the
quasi-public social welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin), which is developed with
authorities to enjoy more discretionary autonomy by care managers with less pressure
towards profit making. This situation accelerated the brokerage role of the non-profit
care managers, willing to monitor the local authorities as watch-guards to secure the
client-friendly implementation of the LTCI.
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199
9 CARE MANAGEMENT AT THE
JUNCTURE OF EXPERTISE, ETHICS,
ORGANISATION AND PRACTICE
In Chapter 3, I described my intention to link macro policy to micro implementation,
specifically, to analyse the effects of the welfare mix approach, which served as basic
framework of the LTCI system derived from the LTC policy reform. In this chapter, I
discuss my comprehensive and cultural interpretation of the three themes: tasks of care
management, organisational effect to care management and care managers’ practice in
everyday life. I revisit the results of my interpretation of the Japanese care managers’
stories in the wider realm of culture and policy circumstances surrounding the current
LTCI system in Japan. More concretely, I focus on the actual role of the care managers
in implementing LTC policy in contemporary Japan and taken up three important
areas representing the welfare mix approach. First, there is the mixture of expertise.
Second, there is the mixture of organisations. Third, there is the mixture of working
environment.
9.1 The Basic Structure of the Care Managers’ Narrative
Care managers constructed moral statements through storytelling, and trying to make
sense in the ambiguous roles assigned to them (see Sennett, 2011, p. 104; Weick, 1995).
Implementing the LTCI system within the frame of the welfare mix approach requires
care managers to develop self-understanding of their work description utilising an
ethical definition instead of a statutory one. Such internal sense making functions as a
self-adaptation process to the current discrepancies observed in the care management
as a practice. The previous chapters suggest that care management is a normative
social structure. The practice of care management is constructed through reflexive
interpretation of the welfare mix policy objectives by care managers. Stories accentuated
ambiguity of their task in a variety of stories, which care managers’ face in everyday
practice.
Narratives of care managers’ roles, tasks and practices that are revealed to have
common structures. Care managers make sense of the multiple roles by the selective
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Masaya Shimmei
use of words, terms and metaphors. The words are constructs of historical and cultural
product of human practice. Japanese care managers selectively call themselves as keamane, expressed in katakana, a Japanese character used for translating imported words,
for explaining normative care management work (see, Chapter 3.4.3, pp. 82–84). Also,
terms and metaphors occupy the centre of their sense making of their roles ranging
from advocacy, professional expertise, bureaucratic and entrepreneurial roles given to
them.
Care managers showed an artful use of two interchangeable conceptual terms.
Basically, their practices are told in comparative form. These narrative structures have
following two different modes; ‘our everyday practice is to do this, but I think…’ or
‘care management is meant to do this… but as a reality …’. Concerning their roles, care
managers contrasted the ideal and statutory. In terms of organisation, care managers
made a distinction between the individual and agency. When narrating their practices,
some see ‘cutting edge industry which is efficient and welfare industry which is too
optimistic’ and ‘public who has authority and private with less authority’. The peculiarity
of the structure is the direct or indirect comparison of concepts using normative and
actual terms. Both orders of A-B and B-A types are prevalent. The normative/actual
practice comparison structure is presented below.
First, practices type A (normative), then type B (actual)
First, practices type B (actual), then type A (normative)
Care managers’ share a common a normative definition of the tasks of care management.
Normative care management is about how care managers make sense of being a care
manager. Normative care management is expressed as the ideal form, their understanding
is more than statutory work but resembles the task of social work, embracing the whole
life of the household of clients to convey holistic work.
There is also a somewhat generally shared view that their tasks are an indirect
people helping, community based and somewhat bureaucratic task. Yet, there seems
to be quite a variety of approaches to address the subjects, nature and range of practice
that each care manager embraces. In the previous chapters, the comparative structure
of narrative is used together with metaphors. It revealed how the care managers regard
their practices as comprised of multifaceted tasks. It is basically divided into actual
and normative care management; these two aspects of care management cover virtually
borderless tasks that care managers potentially have to work with. Thus, care mangers’
ambivalent attitude toward the versatile or omnipotent tasks normatively assigned to
care managers appeared in the metaphoric expressions in the interviews, namely, the
Jack-of-all-trades, the errand boy (of the bureaucrats), the control tower of the airport,
the table setting and the dumping metaphors.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
201
9.2 Institutional Attributes of Care management in Japan
The ambiguity of care management affects practice in multiple ways. First, care
management practices are affected by the mixed objectives. The most critical one is that
care managers are affected by the institutional frame to cope with both the pressure of
profit making and demand to fulfil the client’s needs. Care managers regard themselves
as human service experts and at the same time as bureaucrats and a sales person to make
profits. Care managers working in non-profit organisation are regarded as community
workers dealing with voluntary community leadership work, which is not stated in the
statute. They are required to comply with both statutory and unwritten bureaucratic
work, and even voluntary extra tasks written as an ideal care management in the
coursework books. Ambiguous borders between these multiple roles delegate more
than statutory tasks to convey in the community care setting relying on care managers’
individual ethical quality.
One of the peculiarities of the Japanese LTCI is that the system introduced a quasimarket arrangement of provision of care services: Non-profit organisations to business
providers may become legitimate service providers. The Japanese care management
system was introduced to manage diverse providers in the community and allowed
care managers to be affiliated with the service providers. Opposed to the ideal of a split
between providers and the purchaser as a necessary precondition to secure the neutral
position of the street-level worker (Lipsky, 1980), Japanese care management allowed
the purchaser-provider integration. Affected by the strict fee schedule set in the LTCI
Act, care managers are mobilised to act as a sales person within the providers to act
strategically to earn a profit. Three strategies are commonly taken as ways to secure
profits under such institutional environment by providers.
First, there is maximising the number of cases by each care manager. When
maximising the cases, the time allowed to work with clients is limited because of the
maximum numbers of clients to handle. As opposed to the Lipsky’s remark about
the coping behaviour of street-level bureaucrats who control a number of clients, the
introduction of the commercial business sector to carry out the street-level bureaucracy
leaves less room for care managers to have such discretion.
Second, there is the maximising service usage of affiliated care service providers. Care
managers have an ethical and practical duty to ensure that clients can still utilise care
services even when they are hospitalised. This rule aims to secure the client’s advantage
to have more flexible service. However, it could be in conflict with the organisational
objective to secure profits, as absence of users would mean less profit. For instance,
care managers who work in firms providing day services may only find it difficult to
secure the continuity of services to clients and income to firms, if day service users
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Masaya Shimmei
institutionalised or hospitalised and thus to stop using day services that they provide.
However, the providers have the obligation to keep the hospitalised client’s place for an
upper limit of three months. While clients are absent from services, providers have to
keep the client’s place without charging any costs. If care managers have to think of the
profit of service providers affiliated or not, they directly face the dilemma of thinking
about loss of profit. To avoid such a management risk, there is a tendency to strategically
select clients in order to avoid establishing unprofitable care service.
Thirdly, there is a problem of cream skimming, namely, providing services to
efficient and profitable clients. Notably, this profit maximisation strategy soon runs into
dilemmas by care managers. When it comes to the size of organisation, small business
firms have two strategies to comply with the current institutional situation. One strategy
is to hold onto organisational missions and stick to the firm’s idea to respond to the
perspectives of needy clients and try to balance it with profits. However, these firms are
likely to make less profit than larger and efficiency oriented firms. The other strategy is
to rationalise their business radically to adapt to the change in institutional framework
and choose the most efficient way to maximise their profit by selecting profitable or the
most important services to provide.
9.2.1
Changing organisations reflecting idea of
profit making and managerialism
The welfare mix brought in profit making as the important objective of street-level
workers. The way care managers in Japan structure their narratives on profits occurs
differently. Care managers acknowledge the institutional limitations and their dilemmas
when I asked the question on the issue of profit. However, their expression on the
independence of care managers from service providers are talked differently according
to the objectives they stress.
The meaning of profits for care managers working in non-profit organisations
slightly differs from that of profit making firms. Care managers working in non-profit
organisations are also facing pressures to think about their work in relation to the act of
profit making. However, business and voluntary services go hand-in-hand for non-profit
providers. The current situation in which non-profits in Japan operate is one where profit
making is regarded as an investment to convey their actual objectives, such as providing
service resources not covered by the LTCI system and convey voluntary services. Care
managers working in non-profit organisations showed similar but ambivalent attitudes
towards profit making pressures because they have more room to think of client centred
objectives than the act of profit making to realise the missions of organisations. However,
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
203
the wide range of missions which non-profits have require enormously demanding tasks
from care managers working in the non-profits. In theory, normative care management
presupposes dealing with voluntary community leadership work. Nevertheless, this
task is not stated in the LTCI statute.
The pressure to acquire profit affects how care managers’ perceive clients. Care
managers use the terms to identify themselves in both a statutory and normative
position in the professional work. This self-identity building process in organisational
life affects care managers’ notion of clients. If clients were regarded as customers and
service-users, it would reflect the positional differences of statutory, organisational and
ideal care management. Clients are regarded as both customers for earning profit and
service users publicly assisted by certain expertise. To express such a situation, care
managers use the term customers (kyaku) and service users (riyôsha). Another obvious
consequence is that for-profit providers demand care managers to balance conflicting
targets at the personal level. It is through this discourse that care managers make sense
of the task and clients (Miller, 1991).
In addition to the effect of the conflicting objectives, their work boundaries between
client-centred work and bureaucratic work are blurred when care managers convey
practice. Unlike social work or health care, most of the care managers working within
the LTCI system can only provide services if the insured are evaluated as eligible users,
with the exception of care managers working at the comprehensive community care
support centre (chiiki-hôkatsu-shien-sentâ) operated by local authorities or social
welfare corporations (shakaifukushi-hôjin), which are assigned to deal with preventive
measures for community dwelling elderly.
There are sharp contrasts in their views, especially in the advocacy and statutory
work. In the theorising of care management, textbooks of care management teach that
one of the central functions of care management is advocacy and resource development
to realise welfare provision in the community. This view is also considered in the
problematizing of public policies on bureaucratic and democratic services. As care
managers are mostly working in private sector with little discretion and legitimacy
compared to workers in public authorities, care managers in Japan have to cope with
organisational and ethical pressures to deal with the increasing bureaucratic work
assigned to them. This triple-bind situation forced care mangers to circumvent their
work, mostly making them put their efforts into bureaucratic statutory work instead
of looking after clients more carefully. As street-level bureaucracy theory points out,
circumventing actions are prevalent in the street-level work, however, the care managers
in Japan regard their status as having little room for any discretionary decisions because
the LTCI system is highly controlled by central and local authorities.
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Masaya Shimmei
Having discussed about the bureaucratisation of care management work, some
care managers, especially care managers working in non-profit sector regard working
as private bodies as having certain positive consequences. Care managers in the nonprofit sector make sense of their work as the tool to realise a bottom-up approach to
implementation, which enhances civic participation in developing the local welfare
community. However, a previous study on Japanese emerging non-profits in the LTCI
suggests that radical differences between non-profits and commercial sectors have not
observed under a highly regulated quasi-market system in Japan; LTCI providers are
more alike in isomorphism (Suda, 2006). Recall the district commissioner system, a
discretionary decision system on social assistance where decisions were made by
unpaid honorary appointees. Likewise, Japanese professional social work is regarded
as part-volunteer and honorary job with paternalistic motives. As Suganuma (2005)
pointed out, Japan’s historical development in the community social work was based
on an ‘honorary appointee system (meiyoshoku-sairyô-taisei)’ and is still affecting those
working in the non-profit sector, leaving the non-profit sector in a secondary position
compared to commercial businesses. All this is reflecting the Japanese dual civil society,
in which the voluntary sector is acting in a support vacuum by the public (Pekkanen,
2006).
9.2.2 The mix of professional expertise
Care managers’ statements involve ethical concerns when internalising what should
be done and what should not. Excerpts vividly demonstrate how care managers
acknowledge their task as statutorily defined in the LTCI Act but also recognised the
public obligation to convey voluntary community work tasks. Professionals are quite
often said to encounter ambivalence between emotional reflection and the professional
mind. But this level of ambivalence among managers with different professional
backgrounds is thought to be qualitatively different from one another, because it is
assumed that different professional backgrounds reflect diverse professional cores, such
as knowledge and ethics (Merton, 1976).
The care management system in Japan does not clearly define the borders of their
work. Within given ambiguous tasks and ambivalent professional identities, care
managers move back and forth between normative and actual or imported/ideal and
statutory care management. On the one hand, Japanese care management is represented
in two-ways; the statutory care manager, kaigo-shien-senmonin and more normative care
manager called as kea-mane which the abbreviation of imported term for care manager.
In the Japanese context, both terms stand for care managers. Care managers identify
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
205
themselves using terms representing the statutory care management (kaigo-shien)
and normative term kea-mane. Care managers acknowledge they are delegated to and
accountable to statutory roles defined in the LTCI act. However, care managers regard
that extra voluntary community work roles are also their role. They regard themselves
as human service experts, and at the same time as bureaucrats to substitute their role
and a sales person to earn profits. This duality in the meaning of care management is
attributable to the re-definition of social work expertise with the mix of professionals by
re-categorising professionals as a statutory care manager called kaigo-shien-senmonin.
On the knowledge level, the variations in the professional disciplines reflect different
conceptions and attitudes to care management; differences in professional origins
were reflected in the narratives, namely care managers with social welfare origins, for
example, the certified social worker and care worker and health origins (namely, nurses)
revealed the most obvious differences. Especially, health professionals and social
work professionals have recognised the basic conditions of the elderly who need care
differently. The emphasis on care has been differently imagined by each care manger as a
result of the government’s policy to merge health care and care for daily living of elderly
in a terminal condition.
9.2.3 Attributes of working environment to care management practices
Having noted that care managers recognise and try to comply with multiple goals, I
also need to mention that care managers also make compromises and demarcate their
endless tasks to set limits according to their personal circumstances reflecting their
household situation.
From the study of care management developed under the gendered nature of social
care industry in Japan, the welfare mix approach have impacted the form of care
management reflecting cultural traditions surrounding care work. Care managers carry
out practice within the situation of their household. When care managers had to comply
with their role as the traditional single breadwinner in their household, the study showed
that they tried to see their work in relation to other industries. A comparison between
the ‘social welfare industries’ and other major industries situate the caring industries as
disadvantaged to other major industries.
The terms and notions used to construct such a sense were efficiency, profit and
competitiveness. A Japanese preference for employment still somehow tends to reflect
bigger the better values. The main breadwinner has been less resistant to internalise such
a notion compared to part-time care managers. In the Japanese social system, elements
of gender segregation in their household are still preserved. In the narrative data, as a
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Masaya Shimmei
breadwinner, male care managers I interviewed explained their work using economic
terms such as efficiency (kôritsu) and profit (rieki) trying to express the sense of being
an entrepreneur. Some care managers try to achieve self-actualisation by locating
themselves in community care and convey public services. Thus, care managers in this
study made sense of their task and set boundaries according to their relative position
in the caring industry, where variations of participation is available either working for
profit making or non-profit making organisations.
In term of gender, the current household situation in Japan still requires men to be
the centre of the household. This tendency also reflects the other side of the coin. In
all sectors, the public, commercial business and non-profit organisations, housewife/
mother care managers make up a large proportion of part-time care managers. They
prefer working on a part-time basis basically because they want to balance work and
the care role in their household. The discussion of the work-life balance issues has been
currently boomed on the national level but it has been recently disputed. Although
statutory care leave has been implemented, still the majority of unpaid work in the
household is carried out by women, therefore, care managers with mothering or caring
roles prefer to work on a part-time basis (Wang, Shimmei, Yamada, & Osawa, 2013). The
taxation system also backs up such working habits, as one needs to limit the workload
to be eligible for the tax exemption status. The level of tax exemption is not so high
but a housewife with such a status also enjoys the premium exemption of medical and
pension insurances. This scheme is symbolic in the Japanese society and the system
contributes to maintain gender roles in the household.
A consequence of their practice is that care managers also compromise their tasks
according to their own personal roles in their household situation. Nowadays, the
pressure to acquire profits is strong. Even in the non-profit sector, care managers are not
free from pressure to make certain revenues to maintain business as an employer and
voluntary mission. In the current system, the non-profit sector in the social care market
is expected to offer a basis to maintain flexible working conditions for the housewife.
At the same time, it also contributes to maintaining a dual-structure in the social
care labour market as cheap and with a gendered nature. In the current decline in the
labour market participation rate caused by the aging society and the economic boom,
it is difficult to acquire part-timers as a main source of labour power to secure their
business. It is also difficult to attract the younger generation to participate in voluntary
work in a community care setting. In either way, these organisations that form the basis
for volunteer activity or flexible part-time working seems to shrink, which necessitates
these organisations becoming a real social enterprise to attract people who seek to work
in the community.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
207
Caring in general is gendered. Even the social care labour market and participants
in non-profit activities are, needless to say, gendered (Yamane, 2010). For example,
women play major roles in grassroots level voluntary activities in Japan. Activists who
participate in the voluntary activity in their 50s and 60s have been well experienced
to work in the community through PTA activities, so they supported the activity of
grassroots level community voluntary actions. Moreover, quite a number of these
activists have spent years abroad because of husbands’ business transfers. Thus care
managers who have lived abroad witnessed the occidental notion of welfare, which
qualitatively differs from the Japanese notion of welfare (fukushi). Nevertheless, this
emotional labour is accomplished through the ethical requirements imprinted in the
moral discourse developed by policy, the media, education, training as a culture to rely
on the basis of good will of the human being who wants to contribute to well-being of
patients, clients, neighbours and family members (Hochschild, 1983). Apparently this
enforcement of moral behaviour through the reorganisation of professionals may lead to
overburden their work load (Miller, 1991). The consequence of such a formation would
likely to demand conflicting achievements or mobilise people in unwritten objectives
in their work situation. Ambiguous responsibility settled in the new professionalism
would lead to superficial ethical judgment and consequently isolating care managers in
the chasm of neo-liberal reform and gendered institutions (Sennett, 2011, p. 99).
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Masaya Shimmei
10 CARE MANAGEMENT AS A MODE OF
WELFARE MIX IMPLEMENTATION
In this study, I examined the relevance of care management on the implementation of
the Long-term Care Insurance (LTCI) adapted to reform Japan’s Long-term Care (LTC)
policy using the discourse-based approach. Previously, the central focus was the policy
learning (Meseguer, 2005; Simmons et al., 2008; Wilson, 2001) and implementation
(Lipsky, 1983) process, that is, how the form of policy affects the form of practice. To
this end, (1) I investigated how Japan chose the LTCI system and how policy learning
has affected the development of certain welfare mix; (2) I explored care management
as a learned concept to convey macro policy direction by questioning how the concept
of ‘care management’ appeared in Japanese context and why; (3) I conducted in-depth
interviews with actual care managers and analysed narratives to discover how the care
managers’ practices reflect given organisational, professional, and gender differences;
and (4) I attempted to define an overall interpretation of the Japanese LTC reform
by linking macro policy to the micro implementation view. In addition, I posed the
following question: how did policy learning affect micro level implementation through
care management practices? Collectively, considering the findings in the current study,
I concluded that Japanese care managers are facing dilemmas in the areas of service
provision and lack expertise within a responsibility vacuum. The issues facing care
managers in Japan are largely a result of the political process, which reflect its historical
and cultural legacy.
10.1 Policy Learning and the Responsibility
Vacuum in LTC Policy Reform
Japan developed a LTC policy in order to acquire the adequate amount of service
provision to be prepared for the rapid increase in social care needs. The policy is based
on eclecticism. To create the policy, Japanese lawmakers took three divergent actions to
change the mode of care production. First, an insurance system was introduced to fund
the actual LTC policy, as it was the common method to achieve political consensus.
Second, administering the system is partly decentralised to local authorities with the
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
209
harmonisation of existing medical and health services in the community. Third, in terms
of the mix of service provision, the Japanese government adapted the quasi-market idea
and introduced the notion of the care service market (kaigo-shijô), enlarging the private
sector and naming commercial business and non-profit providers as eligible statutory
services, along with traditional social welfare corporations.
This policy learning not only offered an alternative direction to change the
fundamentals of the LTC service system but also altered the mode of implementation
in that the notions of both profit making and efficiency have become a necessary
precondition for producing social services. Implementation is not an automatic or
passive process, but a political process. How implementers interpret policies very much
influences, or almost determines, the way policies are implemented. In this instance,
care management in Japan has become the embodiment of a welfare mix approach
to LTCI system implementation. While little evidence has demonstrated, in policy
terms, why such a technique was been introduced in social services (Wang, 1998), the
care management idea drew the attention of the policy-making community in Japan
to coordinate the LTC services for clients in the community. As a result, Japanese
policymakers introduced a version of care management known as kaigo-shien-senmonin
as key coordinators for LTCI services. To convey the statutory care management, the
Japanese system realigned different types of professionals to become care managers.
Narratives collected from care managers for this research vividly illustrate how the
elements of welfare mix have affected the practice of care management. Care managers
cognitively construct the actual practice through everyday negotiating. First, although
care managers displayed empathy for elderly and carers, the ambiguity of their tasks led
to over-adaptation of rules and circumventing behaviour. In addition, care managers
experienced conflicts between expertise and management; as street-level bureaucrats,
care managers administer pre-arranged care and as private sector employee, they are
mindful of organisational profits. Second, care managers categorise multifaceted clients
as service users, customers, (dying) patients, or frail residents. Third, care mangers
construct an ambivalent professional identity between the normative kea-mane, an
imported term for care managers who perform textbook care management, and the
kyotaku, the statutory Japanese term for care management agency that deploys a
statutory work routine.
This study revealed that care managers are caught between the institutionalised
norm and statutory/managerial requirements. They are desperate for recognition and
to escape from the double bind created by the normative care management based on
the Anglo-American model of social work and statutory care management (kaigo-shien)
developed in Japan. To fill in the gap, care managers construct own imaginaries of
practices through storytelling. Using this cognitive framework, care managers in this
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Masaya Shimmei
study express confusion in the range of their work and question whether they should
complete the narrow statutory work or perform ideal social interventions, as described
in commonly used textbooks at care management education. Fourth, care managers do
practice within the institutional legacy and gendered nature of the social care market.
They do what is possible, following their own ideas of preferences at work, and create
routines in interaction with their colleagues.
Therefore, on the surface, policy learning offers solutions to common social problems
across nations. However, despite the resemblance of policy targets, the learned policy
may result in unexpected consequences (Estes, 1979) because policy learning reflects
interpretation. New ideas could be introduced in a policy field but interpreted within a
nation’s welfare culture (Pfau-Effinger, 2005); this must be regarded as an active political
process (Alasuutari, 2014). The mode of care production to organise care resources are
particularly open to varying interpretations. Recall that within the very nature of care
is the mode of plasticity, when no sectors appears to take responsibility in providing
minimum social care and it is more likely that the responsibility and care burden would
be passed back to the informal sector (Anttonen, Sipilä, & Baldock, 2003).
Reflecting this framework, my interpretation of the current Japanese LTC reform
is that the LTCI continues to preserve a responsibility vacuum of care production
affected by the underlying policy legacy, which is peculiar. The changing balance in
care production inevitably reinforced commissioning a public role for the private
sector, appointing the private sector to accomplish both bureaucratic and profit-making
acts. In addition, the peculiar aspect of the LTC for the elderly necessitates a mix in
professional domains, namely social work, health, and medical, to convey the task.
Adding to this, non-profit charitable roles were expected. To comply with this change,
the mode of policy implementation changed from traditional street-level bureaucracy
to a new mode through professional realignment as a way to compensate for the
responsibility vacuum. A particularly interesting outcome in the Japanese development
of care management was that human service professionals and semi-professionals were
mobilised as implementers, equipped with amalgamated elements of bureaucracy with
an entrepreneurial focus. The strong medical and health sectors refused changes directed
by the government. Thus, it is assumed that this method was chosen because the vested
interest surrounding established systems is difficult to change and the government tried
to implement the system without disturbing the current vested interest in the social
security system. Needless to say, different professional and organisational domains are
coded by different ethical bases. Therefore, it is likely that this professional realignment
strategy enhanced multiple interpretations of the care management as a practice.
The political dimensions of care management affect the context of care management
in everyday practice. When care management is used as a major tool to implement
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
211
community care reform, the border between political objectives to promote the
privatisation of social care markets and social work expertise is obscured, because such
market-driven objectives are not clearly represented in care management service per se
(Lewis, Bernstock, Bovell, & Wookey, 1997). The amalgamation of professional knowledge
with a political concept, namely the new public management, functions as an imputing
mechanism to replace issue of responsibility to technical one. While fiscal stringency
and contracting services change the policy environment for street-level bureaucrats
(Lipsky, 2010, pp. 212–221), Hjörne, Juhila, and Van Nijnatten (2010) pointed out possible
conflicting areas in the social work. These ‘autonomy versus control’, ‘responsiveness
versus standardisation’, and ‘demand versus supply’ would likely cause dilemmas in
street-level bureaucrats in the era of neoliberal reform. The analysis of Japanese care
managers’ narratives included the three possible areas of dilemmas of street-level
workers and added to the conventional knowledge that standardisation, bureaucracy,
and cost-effectiveness are immanent objectives of the market driven reform that affects
the mode of public policy implementation through constant negotiations between
their practice and policy pressures. For example, care managers in administrative roles
might structure mutual surveillance schemes to actualise political values immanent in
the policy, however, in actuality, the ethical judgment to cope with such dilemmas is
delegated to individual care managers. This goes against the initial objectives of the
LTCI system to alleviate the care burden by informal caregivers. Japanese LTC policy
has developed a number of programs that aim to contract out the care responsibility to
the market and thus, maintain individualism and self-responsibility at the core of the
public policy.
Overall, care managers accept roles that are more difficult than necessary because
they are forced to act without reasonable professionalism and with an insufficient
amount of resources. To comply with the situation, care managers are required to
negotiate between public obligations as key workers and as an ordinary person living
with a limited amount of time to complete endless tasks. Care managers had to make
emotional decisions in order make sense of their practice and determine whether it was
meaningful enough to continue (Dingwall & Strong, 1997, pp. 140–142; Hochschild,
1983; Sennett, 2011). The vacuum of responsibility forces them to demarcate their work
based on the reflection of their ethical interpretation of the work and mobilises their
emotional subjectivity to their work to a larger extent than that for social workers. In
association with the care managers’ required tasks, the gendered nature of care affects
the everyday practice of care managers. The care industries are heavily gendered and
gender differences accentuate the gradation of positive attitudes to care management.
For example, work where the women care managers showed more positive attitude
towards developing community level support by engaging as care managers.
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Masaya Shimmei
Care managers who work in the non-profit sector to some extent contribute
bottom-up implementation. As the Chapter 9.2.1 illustrates, care managers in nonprofits are expected to bring out the role of street-level leadership to fill the chasm of
both fragmented resources and the responsibility vacuum of care production, which
discourages democratic policy implementation. However, as commonly pointed out,
particular characteristics of the Japanese civil society lacks continuous participation
by volunteers and donation from the public (Pekkanen, 2006) makes community social
work difficult for care managers and even social workers. Non-profits, as a major social
enterprise and as an incubation centre for the bottoms-up approach of democratic
implementation of community care, have the potential to develop best practices and are
able to affect other local provisions through a spill over effect, providing a benchmark of
quality service. It is time that the governance structure that controls the private sector,
using revenue as an incentive, should be altered to enhance the active roles of social
enterprise. Having acknowledged the positive features of the non-profit sector, still, the
form of comparison between the normative and actual or statutory care management
suggest that the identity, tasks, and roles of care managers are constructed with a
common narrative structure among care managers working in both profit and nonprofit service providers.
10.2Implications and Limitations
These findings underline the importance of further examination of policy implementation
utilising the ethical underpinnings of learned and introduced policy ideas. The most
prominent implication is that the policy learning process itself needs to be examined
in light of possible consequences in specific cultural and political context. As the
Japanese LTC care policies continue to value family care obligations and self-reliance,
the consequence of policy learning when contracting out the responsibility to the social
care market in the current insurance system may result in the severe control of supply
and service use. Therefore, to convey policy reforms in an ethical way, policy learning
needs to own the ethical considerations corresponding to local culture and politics. An
ethical analysis of different concepts learned and eclectically merged under the macro
social policy reform not only contributes to understanding the role, but also explaining
the mechanism of the recent policy learning process in welfare state reform. This critical
examination demonstrates how ethically risky it is to mix various knowledge bases
without examining the fundamental differences in the ethical assumptions of concepts
for amalgamation. How to learn and combine varying disciplines necessitates careful
consideration in terms of the differences in ethical orientation in each knowledge base.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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Implications for social work research
An implication for social work from this study is a call to develop systematic research
to study policy learning and the realignment of professional tasks. When importing a
policy idea to form eclectic programs, there are possible potential value conflicts expected
to emerge by amalgamating different knowledge bases and this has to be theoretically
examined. Otherwise, the hidden objectives start to corrode into individual care
managers, which results in forcing care managers to position themselves in dilemmas
between the represented values and latent values. Still, if such objectives are articulated
in an educational program, social work researchers can contribute to develop a program
to help care managers to comply with the ethical conflicts by sensitively directing the
introduction of programs that are not only mixed but also developed in the different
contexts, based on the notion of essentialism. How we know is as important as what we
know. It is the cultural context that determines actual implementation process. Thus,
the ethical examination of the knowledge mix has to be seriously taken into account of
recent learning and diffusion and eclecticism in educational program via policy making.
The current mixing of expertise results in an imbalance of knowledge between
medicine, nursing, health and social work. This imbalance of knowledge leads to
a variation of the policies and programs. For example, in the fields of medicine and
health, the practitioners have clear and practical knowledge of what they should do.
Also, these medical, health and nursing professionals lack the view of social aspects with
a few exceptions. A partial knowledge base would cause a disadvantage to clients where
care managers with less health knowledge send clients to medical facilities too early or
treating client/patient hood with a paternalistic attitude (Juhila, Pösö, Hall, & Parton,
2003). The status of social work professionals is challenged by the inclination towards a
medical model (Baldwin, 1995; 2000) and balance is required between technicality and
the indeterminacy principle (Lymbery, 1998). Developing systematic research programs
including social work to reflect the ethical conflicts of care management is imperative
to make the care management work. Another way of doing this is to slot social work
education into a common curriculum for the human service professionals because
social work stresses an aspect of reforming the environmental structure and advocacy
as a profession. It is necessary to maintain the activity aspects of human work through
a careful examination of ethical consistency between professional knowledge, political
concepts and use of terms (Arendt, 1958).
So far, I could not find any official textbook for statutory care management to
solve the issue of dilemma, achieving efficiency, making profit and identifying a way
to comply with the difficulties in securing clients’ benefits. The efficiency and profit
making remain a hidden curriculum of the care management education as if those
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objectives are not direct concerns of care management per se. Also, the scope of
care managers’ work in everyday statutory settings rests on how status and working
environment of social workers have been constructed in the given society. Uncritical
popularisation of the concepts and terms developed in occident just do more harm
than good without taking cultural context into account. It is all up to individuals in
a managerial position, bureaucrats and care managers, who have to decide how far
their work should be conveyed. Social imaginaries signify the world and the norms
(Castoriadis, 1987); it through these imaginaries that care managers make sense of
their work. Care managers are active actors who alter the norms assigned. Thus, the
prevailing knowledge and materials on care management do not reflect an actual way
to cope with the conflicts with efficiency and expertise. The knowledge-emulating trend
represented in recent policy learning should reflect how to deal with ethical conflicts
occurring during practice because it is difficult to find prescriptions for such situations.
For such a purpose, the study revealed that story telling by care managers is a useful
method to unveil the structural peculiarities of the learned policy.
Policy implications
What can we learn from Japan’s experience in implementing the LTC policy reform?
Japanese policymakers chose insurance-based financing, quasi-market provision, and
care management to achieve the socialisation of care in a country where public care
provision was traditionally scarce. The changing mode of care production in Japan
reveals an interesting aspect of Japanese welfare mix because the quasi-market system
introduced with the Japanese LTCI limits the responsibility of developing sufficient
care provision. The process of a responsibility vacuum in care provision was inherent
in the current structure of financing, where a premium setting role given to the
municipalities. The municipal governments as enablers dealt with increasing demand
to prepare resources, without raising the level of expenditure. The basic issue of the
welfare mix based on marketisation is that ‘anything goes’. Someone may perform
positive bureaucratic work for the government, another strives for profits, another
tries to construct a caring community, and yet another thinks that the most pressing
need is to assist a frail, elderly person. Somehow, all of these purposes are relevant
and must be taken into account. However, there is no single way of dealing with these
conflicting roles. To realise an ideal mix of care resources, a clear public responsibility
is an imperative to achieve an adequate balance of care production with sufficient care
resources available.
Coordinating Eldercare in the Community
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In relation to the current Japanese LTC reform, it is apparent that care managers
are struggling with their tasks within the conditions of scarce service provisions. There
are three macro policy issues that care managers find difficult in their work: first, the
inherent rigidity of the administration of the insurance system, stressed by the Japanese
government as ‘selectivism’ (see, Ishioka, 2014). In addition, the administration of the
insurance system is based on hard bureaucracy, compared to the more flexible ways of
arranging support for clients with different problems.
The second is the quasi-market system without direct payment introduced in the LTCI
system. Heavy reliance on the private sector is at the heart of the welfare mix balance in
Japan. As shown in Chapter 5, historically, Japanese social services were never publicly
provisioned and the public sector never took responsibility for providing social care to
actualise universal coverage; the quasi-public and private sectors played vital roles in
Japanese welfare provision. The above-mentioned changing mode of care production
intends to delegate public responsibility for service provision to the private sector, which
has created an auxiliary service supply in quasi-market system for social care services.
These methods coincide with the Japanese family care tradition. Compared to a cash
allowance, it is assumed that the government saved money and reduced the burden on
caregivers to some degree, but the system required complex tasks to convey assigned
multiple roles to care managers. As the market only takes responsibility for that which
it receives payment, care managers do not have the resources to be responsible for all of
their clients’ complicated living conditions. In addition, the allocation of care services
is important; the public provision is always scarce. In rural areas, the social welfare
corporations have acted as the primary provider of services because the traditional
quasi-public sectors remain strong. In the cities where more profit-making providers are
common, care managers are required to work as salespersons to enhance services to the
elderly population. Clearly, the fact that care managers are allowed to purchase services
from their own organisations certainly increases their ethical anxiety.
The final issue is the partial administrative decentralisation with a relatively strong
health care sector involvement in service provision. The lack of standardised guidelines
for needs assessments creates bureaucracy and confusion in daily practices as the
regulations of the central government cannot respond to the difficult tasks carried out
by care managers. Decentralisation always implies more complex bureaucracy, if no
professionals were allowed to use their own decision-making skills. Obviously, such
discretion is not allowed for care managers in Japan. If policy reform is required to realign
professional expertise and personnel by developing or importing new conceptual tools,
at least, the academics have to develop an argument on how to comply with the ethical
contradictions in the different realms of knowledge traditions. One such solution is to
critically manifest the contradictory values of learned policy when applied to locality.
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This ethical manifestation by academics is necessary to consider the limitations of the
proposed policy suggestions.
Limitations and future prospects of the study
This study has only dealt with the Japanese case. It should be noted that if the dilemmas
of care management are universal, then the result calls for comparative studies.
Moreover, my conclusions are drawn only from the supply side. The consequences of the
welfare mix to emphasise market role and care management have to be examined from
demand side as well, namely care needing elderly and their carers. In addition, acting
as an enabler in theory, the role of administrators of local authorities needs to be taken
into account. Further, the textual analysis of course books and academic papers using
discourse analysis offers political insights into such policy change and implementation
studies. Aside from all these limitations of the study, I believe that I have been able
to offer a vivid and sound picture on how the welfare mix based on marketisation is
realised by mobilising care management as an implementation tool in contemporary
Japanese eldercare.
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217
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