The Construction of `Japanese` Authenticity and the Lifeblood of

Shakuhachi Culture Taking Root in the U.S.A:
The Construction of “Japanese” Authenticity
and the Lifeblood of American Players
A Thesis
Submitted to
The Faculty of the Graduate School of American Studies
Doshisha University
In Partial Fulfillment for the Degree of
Master of Arts
American Studies
by
Shinsuke Kitamori
3A070101
January, 2009
論文梗概
本論文は、アメリカに形成された尺八道場及びその演奏家を研究対象としている。尺
八は伝統楽器であるため、これまでその音楽性や歴史を中心に考察が行われてきた。一
方、本論文では、尺八の基本的な背景知識を踏まえ、グローバリゼーション理論を応用
し、尺八がアメリカで現地化されたプロセスに着目している。研究の枠組みを日本から
脱構築した上で、実際にグローバリゼーションの担い手であるアメリカ人演奏家にアプ
ローチし、分析した事例研究である。研究の論点は、尺八は現地でアメリカ化するとい
うよりも、むしろより一層日本化している現象があり、アメリカ人演奏家によって、な
ぜ日本的な尺八文化が生み出されているのか、また尺八と演奏家の人生には、どのよう
な関わり合いがあるのかを考察することにある。
尺八がアメリカに本格的に参入したのは１９７０年代以降であるが、現在尺八のコミ
ュニティは、ニューヨーク州などの東海岸を始め、カルフォルニア州などの西海岸に広
がっている。またインターネット上では、インターナショナル尺八ソサイアティという
サイトが形成され、演奏方法のみならず尺八に関するあらゆる事柄について活発な議論
が交わされている。本研究においては、時間の制約上、アメリカ本土を全範囲網羅する
ことは不可能であるため、場所をニューヨークに限定して考察した。私は、２００８年
２月６日から２月１４日までニューヨークに滞在し、ニューヨーク尺八道場「虚吹庵」
等に赴き参与観察と質的調査を実施した。（京都在住の尺八演奏家、倉橋義雄氏が主宰
するインテンシブ尺八ワークショップに参加し、倉橋氏の協力を得てアメリカ人演奏家
１２人にインタビューを行った。）私がニューヨークを研究フィールドに選択した理由
は、「虚吹庵」が海外で最も大きな尺八コミュニティ（メンバーは約８０人）を形成し
ており、活発に演奏活動をしているためである。
序文では、尺八が欧米諸国に伝播している現状報告とアメリカ人が発明した新楽器
“尺ルート”（尺八とフルートが合体した楽器）など尺八の発展について言及した。そ
れに対し、第一章では、尺八の海外移入は、単純に脱領土化をする仮定だけではなく、
むしろ過度の領土化がおきる“オーバーテリトリアライゼーション”という現象がある
ことを示唆している。ここでいう“オーバー”とは、尺八が西洋化されることを意味し
ているのではなく、尺八に投影される日本的真正性がアメリカ人演奏家によって強調さ
れる現象を指している。ではなぜ、アメリカにおいて、尺八は単なる楽器としてみなさ
れず、真正なる尺八として扱われたのだろうか。その原因はアメリカ社会の背景に深く
関わっていると思われる。物質文明を謳歌したアメリカは、大量生産による過度の利便
性を追求したが故に、カウンターカルチャー運動によって新たな価値観の転換を求めら
れた。その動きの一つに、１９５０年代から本格的にアメリカ社会に定着した“禅ブー
ム”がある。実はこの禅ブームと、尺八には相関関係がある。なぜなら尺八は元来、江
戸時代の虚無僧という禅僧によって用いられた宗教的な法器だったからである。そのた
め、尺八がアメリカに参入する際、精神的な禅の楽器として紹介され、かつて虚無僧が
していた＜吹禅＞を瞑想の一つとして採用することになった。一方日本では、明治以降
“文明開化”という日本文化の転換を経験することになり、１８７１年、政府の方針に
よって法器として尺八を使用することは廃止され、純粋に楽器としての尺八が確立して
いくことになる。今では尺八音楽は西洋化し、多くの日本人は洋楽の要素を多分に含ん
だ曲やジャズなどを演奏するようになった。このように第二章では、日米両国における
歴史的変遷を見つめ、日本は“近代性”、アメリカは“精神性”を追求してきた背景が
尺八にも投影され、日本における西洋的な尺八、アメリカにおける東洋的な尺八が生み
出され、日米双方向の流動が“リバーサリゼーション”(価値観の逆転化)になっている
ことを論じた。第三章からは、アメリカ人演奏家によって構築される“日本的真正性”
の具体的な中身ついて、「虚吹庵」のメンバーにインタビューをした記録や、道場内に
装飾されていた文化的表象物などから分析を試みた。道場内部は、能面、書道、俳句、
神棚、木魚、相撲力士の手形などエキゾチックな雰囲気が演出されており、尺八が神話
の地景「ミス・スケープ」に取り込まれていることがわかる。
「ミス・スケープ」とは、
アパデュライが提唱したスケープ理論を応用した私の造語であるが、アメリカの土壌で
築かれた神秘主義、ジャポニズム、禅ブームによって知覚された日本文化の総合的な視
覚イメージ、あるいは神聖/真正なる空間のことであり、尺八は日本と切り離された楽
器ではなく、アメリカ人がイメージする日本と強固に結びついているのである。実際に
アメリカ人演奏家のサイトには、尺八を吹く役者の浮世絵が頻繁に登場することからも、
ジャポニズムと尺八の関係性が見られる。だが注意すべきことは、これらの文化的表象
物はただ単に異国風をあおるためだけに存在しているのではなく、尺八の伝統性を知ら
せる教育的役割を果たしているという点である。尺八は、能や文楽に見られる“序破急”
や、盆栽と尺八の自然性から想起される“侘び寂び”などの日本の美的価値観と共通す
る特徴がフォーカスされ、アメリカ人演奏家は日本の文化的な文脈から尺八を理解しよ
うとしている。また、文化的側面のみならず、尺八は自然性、音楽、禅仏教による瞑想
性など幅広い価値観を包含しており、演奏家はその特徴を存分に引き出し、尺八文化を
促進している。
本研究は「アメリカに根付く尺八文化」と題しているため、研究の客観性を保つため
「虚吹庵」以外の演奏家にも話を伺い、対立する主張も比較検討し第四章で記述した。
最後に第五章では、アメリカ人演奏家が如何に尺八を自らの人生に取り込み日々を生き
る活力源としてきたかに光を当てた。マイルドな響きを持つ尺八は、多忙な生活を営む
ニューヨーカーに心の安らぎを与え、また演奏家のアイデンティティと密接に結びつき、
さらには人類の平和を祈る瞑想的な表現として受け入れられている。一見何でもないシ
ンプルな竹に見える尺八は、まさに変幻自在のコミュニケーション・ツールになったの
である。アメリカ人尺八演奏家は、これからもより一層、日本イメージから想起される
ファンタジーワールドを楽しみながら再創造していくであろう。
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ……………………………………………………………………..Ⅰ~Ⅱ
INTRODUCTION ……………………………..……………………..………...1~6
CHAPTER 1 : REVIEW OF CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION
1.1 A Globalization Theory …………………………………......…...6~8
1.2 Case Studies ………………………………………………...........9~13
CHAPTER 2 : A HYPOTHESIS AS “REVERSALIZATION”
2.1 Ihara-shi Bisei international shakuhachi festival in Okayama
August 24 -26, 2007 ………………………................................14~20
2.2 The influence of bunmei kaika and shakuhachi tradition …...…20~26
2.3 Zen Boom in the United States
and the connection of shakuhachi to Zen ..…………...……......26~30
2.4 “Reversalization” ………………………………………………30~33
CHAPTER 3 : “JAPANESE” AUTHENTICITY
3.1 Fieldwork in New York, 2008, shakuhachi dojo, KiSuiAn …….34~35
3.2 The consideration from Interviewees, Four dimensions ……….35~37
3.2.1 Nature ……………………………………………….......37~41
3.2.2 Zen
…………………………………………………..42~45
3.2.3 Japanese culture
……………………………………….46~54
3.2.4 Music
……………………………………………….......54~59
CHAPTER 4 : TRADITIONAL VS UNIVERSAL
4.1 The conflict between Americans as mythicists
and Americans as evolutionists ……………………………….60~64
4.2 Shakuhachi in Hollywood Movie …………………………….64~69
CHAPTER 5 : THE LIFEBLOOD OF AMERICAN PLAYERS
5.1 Intimacy .………………………………………………………70~72
5.2 Inside …………………………………………………………..72~75
5.3 Shout against war ………………………………………….…75~78
CONCLUSION
……………………………………………….…………...79~81
Notes
......……………………………………………………..……....….82~83
Appendix
………………………………………………………..…....……...84
Works Cited
.……………………………………………..………….……….85~90
PREFACE
My research project has been influenced by two books. The first, one is Soft
Power written by Harvard University Political Scientist Joseph Nye. Thanks to this
book, my interest has expanded from the international politics I studied as an
undergraduate to include a deep interest in the power of cultural appeal in the
international context. The other influential work is The Clash of Civilizations written by
Samuel P. Huntington. He asserted that Japan is the most isolated country in the world
because of its unique and exclusive culture that has no religion like Christianity or Islam
or ideologies like liberalism or communism. In order to prevent the clash of civilization,
we should search for similarities held in most civilizations. But according to Huntington,
the Japan, which is unique and different, will find it difficult to share its culture with
people overseas. In reality however, it seems to be a different story. Japanese pop
culture icons such as anime, manga and Hello Kitty have fascinated people all over the
world and created an appealing image of “cool” or “cute” Japanese.
However, instead of looking directly at contemporary Japanese culture that has
moved overseas, I have investigated a more traditional Japanese culture that has moved
to the United States of America. Specifically, I have selected the shakuhachi as the
subject for study. This study has great appeal for me because I play this instrument as
I
well; conducting the research and attending performances has been very enjoyable. In
Japan, there is no doubt that shakuhachi is a Japanese traditional icon. But why did such
a traditional musical instrument become popular in the United States? What factors of
shakuhachi culture and music fascinate American players and listeners?
How do Americans behave through shakuhachi culture? In an attempt to help
answer this question, my research project will focus on the transcultural impact of the
shakuhachi in the United States rather than musical aspect or historical aspect of
shakuhachi. Even though my research has started from such a simple question,
professor Keiko Ikeda willingly approved my research. I appreciate her patient direction.
Also I’d like to express my appreciation to those whom I have interviewed and played
shakuhachi with during this research. We have stimulated each other and I believe that
their contributions have helped make this a more richly elaborate thesis than I expected.
Lastly, this thesis became possible thanks to the great support of The American-Japan
Society, Inc. and Yoshio Kurahashi, a professional shakuhachi player as well as a
teacher. The American-Japan Society, Inc. aided me in covering the costs of the research,
Kurahashi Sensei arranged interviews with American players. Finally, all of the people I
interviewed were generous with their time and their experience. I am grateful to all of
the people who have helped me complete this study.
II
INTRODUCTION
What is a shakuhachi? First of all, a shakuhachi is traditional musical instrument of
Japan that is shaped like a vertical bamboo flute. The name “shakuhachi” (尺八) comes
from a derivation of the sounds associated with the Japanese characters, Isshaku
Hassun ( 一 尺 八 寸 ). Shaku ( 尺 ) and Sun ( 寸 ) represent Japanese standards of
measurement. Shaku is equivalent to about 30 centimeters, while one Sun is roughly
equivalent to 3 centimeters. The characters, Ichi (一) and Hachi (八) represent numbers.
Ichi means one and Hachi means eight. So, Isshaku Hassun represents one Shaku and
eight Sun, almost 54 centimeters in total. Basically the normal length of 54 centimeters
is represented as a number 1.8. Although the name “shakuhachi” derives from the
traditional length of the instrument, actual shakuhachi vary in length from the 1.8
standard to as short as 1.1 (Isshaku Issun) [33cm] to as long as 3.3 (Sanshaku Sansun)
[99cm]. However shakuhachi is always generically referred to as a “shakuhachi”
despite variations in size in Japan. Nobody calls them shakuichi or shakusan. Practically,
the term, “shakuhachi” has already become an international word like judo, sushi and
manga.
Nonetheless, shakuhachi is not as popular as western instruments like piano, guitar
and violin in Japan where it originated from because a lot of Japanese people enjoy
1
playing western instruments nowadays, but only a few know how to play the native
flute. Conversely, while its popularity is declining locally, the distinction and the unique
sound it produces are earning attention worldwide. In fact, the amazing globalization of
shakuhachi seems like quite a riddle.
As a background of the global spread of shakuhachi, an international shakuhachi
festival has been often held since 1994. The first location of the international
shakuhachi festival was in Okayama prefecture, in Japan, the second site was Boulder,
Colorado, in the United States in 1998. It returned to Japan in 2002, being held in Tokyo
and moved back overseas to New York in 2004. In 2008, the chosen location was in an
entirely new country, being held in Sydney, Australia for the first time. Riley Lee, the
head of The Australian shakuhachi Society, predicted that “Australia will be the center
of all shakuhachi including Japan, in the future.”(The 20th anniversary of the kokusai
shakuhachi kenshukan, 2007) Surprisingly, in Australia there is a designer, Jessie White,
who goes by the name, “shakuhachi.” In her website, she writes:
Like the delicate shakuhachi flute, which looks like very simply constructed
bamboo flute, but is painstakingly difficult to learn to play, Jessie White’s
clothing label of the same name is also deceptively intricate. Having
eschewed formal fashion training, her career as a designer was born eight
years ago out of a strong desire to create necessity and instinct. Creating
original artwork, Jessie brings together a sophisticated blend of modern,
somewhat geometrical designs. A distinctive style developed through
creative experimentation and natural creative curiosity . . .
2
(http://www.shakuhachi.net.au/).
For Jessie White, using the word “shakuhachi” as her nickname symbolizes a
new idea and a new construction of her fashion. The image of shakuhachi has
contributed to shape new art style despite its tradition. During the 20th anniversary of
the kokusai shakuhachi kenshukan, 2007, according to Riley Lee, there were several
composers who composed pieces for shakuhachi in Australia. However in almost all
cases, the composer had neither played nor heard the sound of shakuhachi. The music is
created in their mind despite lack of Japanese context. Therefore, the resulting
compositions had less bias and the composers produced Australian shakuhachi music.
Because of this reduced bias, new creation may be more possible than a Japanese could
imagine.
Shakuhachi culture has even spread to Europe. In Europe, the First Pan-European
Shakuhachi Summer School took place in 2006. During a symposium in the 20th
anniversary of the kokusai shakuhachi kenshukan, Kiku Day, a member of European
Shakuhachi Society, said “I attempted to gather shakuhachi members from across
Europe. Just as Japanese can learn piano in Japan without going to Europe, it already
became possible to learn shakuhachi from non-Japanese teachers even in Europe.” The
globalization of shakuhachi has been extended gradually by the patient effort of
non-Japanese players. Of course, Japanese players exerted themselves to transmit it
3
overseas as well. The first major place outside of Japan where shakuhachi spread was
the United States. Several Japanese teachers have taught the shakuhachi as guest players
or professors in such American universities as Columbia University, Princeton
University, Stanford University, the University of Hawaii, University of Michigan and
Wesleyan University. Moreover, American players who studied shakuhachi in Japan
then returned to the United States and have contributed to the spread of the shakuhachi
in America from the west coast such as in California to the east coast such as in New
York by performing and teaching as professional shakuhachi players.
Figure : 1 Shakulute
In 2002, shakuhachi culture in the United States was transformed by the invention
of the shakulute. The instrument is a new hybrid musical instrument with combined
4
characteristics of the shakuhachi and the flute. The inventor is Monty Levenson, who
lives in California and works as a professional shakuhachi maker. The new instrument is
easier to hold than the Western flute by changing the style in which the instrument is
held from horizontal to vertical. As Levenson mentioned, one of the main advantages
of shakuhachi comes from using shakuhachi headjoint:
Ergonomically, the effect of holding the flute vertically is much less stressful
on your hands, wrists, arms, shoulders and neck than holding it horizontally.
This is one of the main advantages of using the shakuhachi headjoint.
Besides, the first thing many players notice is that the shakulute produces a
particularly large envelope of sound with enhanced volume and power
(www.shakuhachi.com).
According to Levenson, Kozan Tanifuji, the first shakulutist in Japan, stated that “The
shakulute has the characteristics of both shakuhachi and flute. For example, the
shakulute can not only make a sound of muraiki (explosive wind sound of shakuhachi)
but also it is easily able to make a sound of flat and sharp that shakuhachi has difficulty
to blow” (Levenson).
In addition, shakuhachi has come to be used in many Hollywood movie scenes.
In this way, which I will explain more in Chapter 5, the shakuhachi sound has come to
be heard all over the world. First, this thesis will review globalization theories in
Chapter 2. Next, I will consider the different background between Japan and the United
States to reveal its unique globalization in Chapter 3 and explore how the shakauhachi
5
was brought to the United States. Afterward, to understand this globalization process in
detail, I will describe how people are engaging in shakuhachi playing overseas. Much of
the information in these chapters is based on interviews conducted in New York, at an
active shakuhachi dojo, or training room, called KiSuiAn. For the last three decades it
has been one of the largest and most active teaching studios outside of Japan. １ In
Chapter 4, I analyze what I saw, felt and heard in my observations of shakuhachi culture
in New York. From the interviews with players, I would like to further explain
conceptions of “Japanese” authenticity, including how these players adapt shakuhachi
culture into their lives. I believe the formation of the authenticity has been generated in
their cultural interpretation. Moreover, interestingly, for a certain American player I
interviewed, shakuhachi also has played social role in American society. Thus the thesis
will not only pursue an understanding of cultural differences but also will consider the
meaning of transmitted culture, the process of taking root in the United States.
6
CHAPTER 1 : REVIEW OF CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION
1.1 A Globalization Theory
In this thesis, one of the purposes is to consider how I use globalization theory
when I apply the theory to the globalization of shakuhachi. The theory of cultural
globalization has been widely discussed among many researchers. As one of the
foremost scholars of cultural globalization, Ulf Hannerz has stated in his treatise, Notes
on the Global Ecumene:
American influence is at present very diverse, but perhaps most conspicuous
in science, technology and popular culture. French influence on world
culture is rather of the high culture variety, and in fields like upmarket food
and fashion. It is another characteristic of the structure of center-periphery
relationships that it has many tiers. Some countries have a strong influence in
their regions, due to a well developed cultural apparatus – Mexico in Latin
America, for example, and Egypt in the Arab world (39).
In this passage, Hannerz explained that there are diverse countries that act as a center
when discussing the “core-periphery model” of world cultural flow. Hannerz forecasted
that the center-periphery flow of culture might leading to the disappearance of cultural
differences in the world, which is recounted fairly frequently in recent scholarship.
Horror tales lament the fact that “the incredibly rich local musical tradition of many
Third World countries is rapidly disappearing under the onslaught of dawn-to-dusk
American pop music.” “For starving children in the Brazilian city of Recife (40), to
7
have a Barbie doll seems more important than food.” Hannerz pointed out the peril of
vanishing cultural characteristics, but at the same time, he insisted too that there is
indeed room for creative local cultural production synthesizing imported culture with
traditional forms. In other words, even in a “core-periphery” system of cultural flow,
imported culture will be integrated with indigenous culture. The concept has been
alternatively “Glocalization,” “Creolization,” or “Hybridization.” According to The
Oxford Dictionary of New Words (134), the idea has been “modeled on Japanese
dochakuka (deriving from dochaku, ‘living on one’s own land’). Japan has positively
accepted foreign culture to re-create more suitable things on their regions. Robertson
says in his treatise Globalization or Glocalization?, “Globalization has involved the
reconstruction, in a sense the production of ‘home,’ ‘community’ and ‘locality’” (37).
Arjun Appadurai also stated in the research, Disjuncture and Difference in the Global
Cultural Economy, “the central problem of today’s global interactions is the tension
between
cultural
homogenization
and
cultural
heterogenization”(49).These
globalization theories have encouraged researchers to further explore the process
surrounding “localization” of transported culture. This thesis will draw heavily on these
globalization theories in order to explain the shakuhachi as an example of cultural
globalization and offer it as a comparison with previous studies.
8
1.2 Case Studies
The most well known and representative research of cultural globalization is the
study of McDonald’s foods in the global context. According to Watson, the main
purpose in researching McDonald’s in the global context is to shed light on the
following questions. First, “Does the spread of fast food undermine the integrity of
indigenous cuisines?” Secondly, “Are food chains helping to create a homogeneous,
global culture better suited to the needs of a capitalist world order?” (130) These
questions originated from critiques of cultural imperialism - a description of the
exploitation that results when popular culture from United States, Japan, or Europe is
exported to other parts of the world. However, Watson mentioned that “McDonald’s has
become a routine, unremarkable feature of the urban landscape in Japan and Hong Kong.
“It is so local that many younger consumers do not know of the company’s foreign
origins,” and in his conclusion, Watson states “McDonald’s symbolizes different things
to different people at different times in their lives; Predictability, safety, convenience,
fun, familiarity, sanctuary, cleanliness, modernity, culinary tourism, and ‘connectedness’
to the world beyond”（149）. These characteristics explain the advantage of McDonald’s
despite the context of American culture. So, McDonald’s transformed into a
homogeneous global culture to be able to share the common values. On the other hand,
shakuhachi represents more Japanized instrument than global flute. Though this is my
9
argument in this thesis, McDonald’s is different from globalized music so next, I
consider the example of music globalization of rock to compare with the case of
shakuhachi. Motti Regev who has researched about a localization of rock music of the
world stated:
The presence of rock music in their own local cultures and its influence on
local music is hardly seen as a form of cultural imperialism. On the contrary,
they perceive it as an important tool for strengthening their contemporary
sense of local identity and autonomy. Anglo-American substyles of rock as
they are, imitations that put local-language lyrics to the same styles, or
hybrids that mix rock elements with local music traditions, proliferate in
countries around the world（212）.
Regev introduces the idea of “thrown,” the meaning of ‘thrown’ comes
from ’thrownness,’ the word of Lash: ‘local authentic’ music is an aesthetic strategy of
identity formation which is determined by the ‘thrownness’ (Lash, 1994):
‘Thrown’ into contemporary global media-scapes, members of national and
local cultures face a sort of tension between local and global cultural
materials. One strategy for coping with this tension has been the conscious
construction of a new sense of contemporary local or national identity that
mixes both types of materials（225）.
Both Regev and Watson’s research posit that indigenous culture is not necessarily
forcefully homogenized by imported pop culture. Rather, peripheral areas have adapted
an “American” product while re-creating it as a localized material in respective
peripheral areas. In these case studies too, the process of localization or hybridization
has been identified as an important concept. In almost every case study of cultural
10
globalization, such a discussion seems to be one of the central axes. In a previous study
of world music; Regev draws upon Wallis and Malm, “it has already been demonstrated,
in much detail, how the global music and broadcasting industries have produced a
musical ‘transculture’ which consists of a variety of styles and which is not attached to
any particular national, ethnic or regional identity” (213). Regev further explains that
Robinson et al states, “musicians all over the world eclectically draw from it in order to
create their own indigenous styles”(213).
However, in the case study presented by this thesis of the globalized shakuhachi,
the axis that will be emphasized does change. Certainly, as has been pointed out by the
example of the shakulute, the hybrid instrument and music is being created by American
players outside of the Japanese context. However, the main point of my research is that
“Japanese authenticity” is more heavily emphasized by foreign shakuhachi players and
most American players regard shakuhachi as the instrument which originated from
Japan. This particular piece of material and culture links its participants to another
particular nation, tradition and history. The process is not described so much by the
word “deterritorialization” as it can be by the term “overterritorialization.” The meaning
of “over” implies more emphasized Japan. It cannot be described as simply
“reterritorialization” and the territory is environed by American imaginations to
11
reinforce Japanese aesthetics as well as exoticism they have created as I will explain in
greater detail in Chapter 3.
This case is totally different from another globalized Japanese pop culture, Hello
Kitty. Eun-Young Jung says,
While Hello Kitty’s popularity in America and Europe seems to remain
culturally odorless, detached from any association with Japan, particularly
among the children who are its main consumers, Hello Kitty does constitute
a Japanese presence in Asia, recognized by consumers as—if not “essentially
Japanese” then at least “coming from Japan. As noted by many scholars and
journalist (sic), since the 1990s, Japanese popular culture has been adored by
many young Asians who were fond of its “cuteness,” as well as its being
“cutting-edge” “stylish” and “sophisticated”（229）.
In Hello Kitty, there is a fact that it has been accepted by many people regardless of
Japanese culture. But in shakuhachi, it is interpreted in the meaning system related to
Japanese culture in the United States. When Americans understand the value of
shakuhachi, they need the outstanding inner meaning as Americans have understood
ukiyoe, bonsai and haiku, etc. In the United States, shakuhachi is strongly connected
with Japanese aesthetics and understanding of Japanese culture, more than simply the
meaning of shakuhachi that the Japanese usually deal with. This thesis will focus on
how the meaning system works among American players.
A brief review of globalization theory and its applications to the transfer of global
culture would indicate that shakuhachi is not the flow from the West and even pop
12
culture and transmitted shakuhachi has been taken in American context. In order to fully
understand how shakuhachi has moved from Japan to foreign countries, it is important
to study the background of the instrument and some of the cultural impact that it has
had in respective countries, which will be covered in Chapter 2.
13
CHAPTER 2 : A HYPOTHESIS AS “REVERSALIZATION”
2.1 Ihara-shi Bisei International Shakuhachi Festival in Okayama,
August 24 -26, 2007
Ihara-shi Bisei international shakuhachi festival in 2007 was organized by the
members of Kokusai Shakuhachi Kenshukan (International-Shakuhachi Study Center)
as the 20th anniversary of the establishment of the kenshukan. This festival was
supported by the foundation of Chiiki Souzou (region creation) and Asahi Newspaper
cultural foundation. The total number of participants was 177, of which 25 were foreign
players from America, Europe and Australia. Kokusai Shakuhachi Kenshukan was
founded in 1987 by Katsuya Yokoyama, who is a worldwide renowned shakuhachi
player. Yokoyama achieved international attention for his November 1967 New York
City premiere performance of Tōru Takemitsu's composition November Steps, for
shakuhachi, biwa (Japanese lute), and orchestra with the New York Philharmonic under
the direction of Seiji Ozawa (with biwa player Tsuruta Kinshi). November Steps played
a big role in promoting the existence of shakuhachi in the world. Yokoyama states in
1994,
今日、自国の文化を守り、発展させていくことは大義名分としては当然のことながら、明治以
来、欧化の一途をたどり、更に国際化の波に洗われる現代の我が国においては、はなはだ至
難なことであります。（中略）カラオケ人口は今や４０００万人と言われます。日本人の三人に
一人は、カラオケ愛好者ということになりましょう。かたや我が尺八人口は三万人と推定される
そうですが、一万人に二人か三人いるかいないかという、極言すれば無いも同然の状況です。
14
国では、伝統文化の育成発展を標榜しています。標榜はしていても無策に等しいこれまでの
音楽教育、音楽状況は未だに続いています。残念ながら国が無策に等しい対応をせざるを得
ない原因は、実はこちら側にあります。尺八を含む邦楽界はそれぞれ多様な流派に分れ、記
譜もそれぞれに異なるのでは、教育の現場に対応できる筈もないのです。国の対応を責める
前に、まず私達尺八家が力を併せてできることから頑張らなければ、先細りに更に拍車をか
けることは目に見えています。日本伝統音楽の中で最も国際化した尺八楽ではありますが、こ
の現実を受け止め、明日の発展につなげることを私たちがやらなければ、折角の芽もしぼん
でしまいます。尺八楽を何故未来に残さなければならないのか、それは尺八本曲一つをあげ
てもうなずけます。すなわち本曲の持つ高い精神性、生死を見すえた中に、厳しい“生きた間”
を体感して表そうとしたとみられる非拍節音楽という特質、美しい音楽はさることながら、ムラ
息のような音楽を超えた音の存在によって、自然との同化、更に平和を願う心安心の境地が
表現され、単に歴史的価値にとどまらず人間にとって普遍的価値があると信じられているから
です。(後略) （2007 年、井原市美星国際尺八フェスティバル、パンフレット、P7）
It is very difficult to maintain and develop our own culture because we have
experienced westernization from Meiji period and in contemporary society,
we will be affected by internationalization in the future [. . .] Whereas the
population of karaoke participants is estimated at almost 40,000,000 people
so that 1 of 3 Japanese will be karaoke lovers, the population of shakuhachi
players is estimated nearly 30,000 people so that 2 or 3/10000ths Japanese
play shakuhachi. To put it in an extreme, the number seems almost nothing
compared with karaoke. Although Japanese government professed that we
have to grow traditional culture, unfortunately, the strategy in music
education is a lack of policy because of the complexity of style of
shakuhachi. So before we criticize the government, we, shakuhachi
performers have to unite together. Otherwise, shakuhachi music will take a
turn for the worse. Although shakuhachi music is the most internationalized
of Japanese traditional music, if we shakuhachi players don’t do something
to develop it in the future, we will not be able to make use of the rare chance.
One reason shakuhachi music has to be maintained in the future is honkyoku
(The repertory of traditional solo shakuhachi music inspired by Zen).
Honkyoku has a high spiritual aspect, “living ma” (No Sound) represented by
the characteristic of non-beat and beautiful sound and muraiki (A shakuhachi
technique using explosive wind sounds) beyond music makes one
assimilation to nature and it represents peaceful mind and state of relief,
further it is believed that there is not only historical values but also universal
15
values (A pamphlet of Ihara-shi Bisei international shakuhachi festival in
Okayama, 2007, 7).
Yokoyama is anxious about the population of shakuhachi player but at the same time,
he never despairs of popularizing shakuhachi because overseas players are highly
interested in shakuhachi. As his belief, he pointed out the importance to maintain
honkyoku in the future. Although honkyoku is composed by various peculiar notes,
overseas players find musical differences and especially Americans I interviewed have
tried to express the nature of honkyoku like ma, or “no sound,” assimilation to nature
and peaceful mind as Yokoyama states. In Ihara-shi Bisei international shakuhachi
festival, too, many foreign players from the beginner to the professional were engrossed
in playing honkyoku.
Figure : 2 The location of Ihara-shi Bisei international shakuhachi festival in
Okayama. The outside and inside kokusai shakuhachi kenshukan.
16
In this festival, there were three concerts, Denpa to Kanryu (Diffusion and Return),
Take no Ibuki (Breath of Bamboo), Yumegahara, Shakuhachi no Furusato
(Yumegahara, the hometown of shakuahchi) and three workshops of honkyoku.
Figure : 3 The concert of shakuhachi honkyoku , Shika no Tōne / Distant Cry of Dear
at Ihara-shi Bisei international shakuhachi festival in Okayama.
Figure : 4 The practice with foreign players for an ensemble concert at Ihara-shi
Bisei international shakuhachi festival in Okayama.
17
The symposium entitled “The present condition of world shakuhachi and kokusai
shakuhachi kenshukan” was held in the village’s environmental improvement center.
Figure : 5
The symposium “The present condition of world shakuhachi and kokusai
shakuhachi kenshukan” by eight foreign representative shakuhachi
players.
During this symposium, one of the members of the kenshukan said:
古典本曲は大変難しい。古典本曲をやっている人はごく僅か。たまたまこの会場に来て
いる人たち、ごく僅かな人たちです。それ以外の人たちは、三曲、現代的な曲、民謡など、
特に若い人たちはジョンさんの音楽などを聴いて非常にビートのきいた、ジャズ系のとい
うか、そういう性格の音楽、自分の育ってきた自分の感性と合う曲をどんどんやっている。
(中略) 尺八を盛んにするためには、できるだけ現代の人の感覚に合うということ。それ
ともう一つは、すごいイケメンのかっこいい若い人がやれば、みんなああそうなのかなー
と思って吹いたりする。国宝の何かくしゃくしゃしたおじいちゃんがやってもあまり広まら
ない。そういうことは必要だが、しかし、誰かが古典の技術を知るためには、ここにいけ
ばわかることを示す。そのために国際尺八研修館がになう。
To play traditional honkyoku is highly difficult and shakuhachi players who
play honkyoku are very rare in Japan. The number of people who play
18
honkyoku seems almost the same as that of people who came for our festival
this time. Other players are playing sankyoku (Edo-period chamber music,
consisting of shamisen, koto and shakuhachi) or modern music or minyou
(Folk Song). Especially, young players try to play a kind of jazz, the music in
accordance with sensitivity that Japanese have grown. [. . .] In order to
familiarize shakuhachi, it needs to have a contemporary sense. As another
way, if a young handsome guy plays shakuhachi, everyone will sympathize
with him and try to blow. Even if an old man recognized as “Living National
Treasure ２ ” plays shakuhachi, it will be almost impossible to popularize it in
Japan. Indeed, adopting the modern way is necessary but when someone
needs to learn how to play honkyoku, kokusai shakuhachi kenshukan
shoulders it (A symposium “The present condition of world shakuhachi and
kokusai shakuhachi kenshukan”).
Japanese players know that honkyoku is not popular in Japan. Nonetheless, at the end of
the symposium, Jim Franklin, one of eight foreign representative shakuhachi players,
insisted, “ I believe that honkyoku will be achieved ultimately not as Japanese heritage
but as human heritage on earth.” During this festival, I noticed that there were a few
young Japanese players while most of the participants were elderly Japanese and
foreigners. In reality, in almost all of university clubs of traditional Japanese music, the
music performed by university students is almost entirely westernized music. However,
in this festival, almost all players, including foreigners, played not modern music but
honkyoku. The sight of foreign players playing traditional shakuhachi music while most
Japanese prefer to play more modern music was a fascinating reversal of trends. Adding
these observations, I set out to examine more fully this phenomenon that I named
19
“reversalization.” Reversalization means an alternation in terms of music direction
between two locations. I hypothesize that reversalization occurs because of differences
in the historical and cultural context of each location. To further develop the point, I
will next consider how the music taste diverges between Japan and the United States.
2.2 The Influence of Bunmei Kaika and Shakuhachi Tradition
Shakuhachi is referred to as a traditional Japanese instrument although it was
imported from China originally during Nara period (710-784). Indeed, shakuhachi was
used as an instrument of gagaku, which is imperial court music imported from China to
Japan during the seven-century, at first, but shakuhachi was adapted by Buddhists as a
religious training instead of sutra recitation during the Edo period in Japan. There were
also the komusou or “Priests of nothingness” of the fuke sect based on Zen Buddhism
who wandered as basket-hatted mendicant priests playing shakuhachi (Figure 6). In this
way, shakuhachi became just a religious tool on Japanese soil.
This lasted until the dawn of the Meiji period, when the Meiji government
adopted the westernization policy and in the process rejected unique Japanese aesthetics,
spiritual traditions and cultural patterns. The images that the government thought
20
unfavorable for the new Japan were from traditional religion to various arts including
Japanese traditional music, shakuhachi.
The late 1800s became known as the period of “Civilization and
Enlightenment” in Japan. The 1880s—a mere generation after Japan had
opened its doors to the West—is recognized as the peak of the era. Although
Westernization is not necessarily synonymous with “civilization and
enlightenment,” in practice bunmei kaika often meant imitation of the
West (www.Japanese123.com).
Yuko Chiba mentioned in her book, Do-Re-Mi wo Eranda Nihonjin. [Japanese People
who Chose Do-Re-Mi.] (Ongaku no Tomonosha, 2007), about the relationship between
Japanese traditional music and bunmei kaika.
改良運動は文明開化期のトレンドの一つであった。（中略）改良運動は伝統的な日本の文
化は改良すべきもの、つまり自国の文化に対する劣等感から出発した思想だったわけで、
当時はこうした視点のみで議論されていた。その結果、邦楽は改良すべきものという発想と
なり、洋楽は高級、邦楽は低級という概念がいつまでも尾を引くこととなる。そして、今の日
本人の自国の伝統的な音楽に違和感を持つという特異な現象を引き起こしたのである。（P
８３）
The improvement movement was one of trends in bunmei kaika. [. . .] The
improvement movement was the idea that Japanese traditional culture should
be improved, in other words, it was based on the idea that Japanese had an
inferiority complex and such perspective was main discussion at that time.
As a result, Japanese traditional music was perceived as needing
improvement and the concept that Japanese traditional music is second-rate
and that Western music is high-grade music has had a lasting effect.
Eventually, this tendency has caused the differential phenomenon that
Japanese feel discomfort with their own traditional music (83).
Because of the trend of bunmei kaika, the Meiji government forced the monks of
21
the fuke sect who played shakuhachi to be disbanded and use of the shakuhachi in
religious ceremonies disappeared after 1871.
Figure : 6 Komusou (Priests of nothingness) belonged to the fuke sect of the Edo
period.
Since then, shakuhachi became widespread as a musical instrument, and was
closely associated with koto (Japanese zither about six feet long, with thirteen strings
passed over small movable bridges) and shamisen (A traditional Japanese three-stringed
lute with square body, played with a large plectrum). The general population were able
to enjoy playing shakuhachi as part of an ensemble, sankyoku (A chamber music,
consisting of shakuhachi, koto and shamisen (Figure 7). Playing shakuhachi was
monopolized by men in Edo period, but nowadays, female players play shakuhachi. But
the number of male shakuhachi players still exceeds that of female and if anything,
22
shakuhachi is regarded as male instrument in Japan.
Figure : 7 Sankyoku , Japanese trio music (koto, shamisen, shakuhachi) in
world shakuhachi festival in Sydney, Australia, 2008.
Like the sound of the Western flute, the sound of shakuhachi has also changed
because the structure of shakuhachi was improved by shakuhachi makers. Musical
composition and notation for shakuhachi both became equally westernized. According
to Chiba, the famous composer, Michio Miyagi mentioned,
はじめは人に分かる程度のものから入っていかぬと結局縁なき衆生になってし
まいます。それからだんだん古いものに理解をもたせるのです。
If we don’t make understandable composition for the audience, nobody will
come to listen to traditional Japanese music, after a large audience was
interested in westernized composition, we have to make them understand
old music (195).
Although westernized music became popular with listeners, compositions by
Michio Miyagi were sometimes criticized because they became too popular. For
23
example, music critic Kouichi Nomura stated that “変テコリンな西洋音楽まがいの和洋合
奏： the ensemble with compromise between Japanese and Western styles is a strange
imitation of Western music.” The conflict appears in the painting entitled Concert by
Japanese and Western Instruments depicted by Teitoku Sakaki. ３
Figure 8 : Teitoku Sakaki, Concert by Japanese and Western Instruments (1906),
Nagasaki Prefectural Art Museum.
This painting became the symbol of the exhibition entitled “Modern Art in Wanderings
in Between the Japanese-and Western-style Paintings,” which was held in Kyoto
National Modern Museum from January 10, to February 25, 2007, and it was adapted as
the exhibition poster. According to the chief of the museum’s research staff, Eiji
Yamano, “the patient woman between the woman playing the violin and the man
playing the shakuhachi is difficult to describe. I am likely to name her “Mrs.
Betweenness” (The website of the National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto).
24
Recently, the shakuhachi has come to be played with western instruments like the
violin, piano, guitar, etc. The picture, Figure 9 shows a music group, Kobudou.
Figure : 9 Kobudou (Dozan Fujiwara, Takeshi Senoo, Nobuo Furukawa).
Interestingly, Kobudo was organized in 2006, 100 years after Figure 5, Concert by
Japanese and Western Instruments was depicted in 1906. The painting of Teitoku
Sakaki and the picture of Kobudo are similar in terms of the personnel organization. The
pianist, Takeshi Senoo is standing between the shakuhachi player Dozan Fujiwara and
cellist Nobuo Furukawa look on proudly and confidently in comparison to “Mrs.
Betweenness.” During this 100 years, there can be little doubt that Japanese sense has
become more westernized. In the nation-wide traditional Japanese music festival for
Japanese university students held from August 8 to 9, 2008, the tunes played by students
25
were almost Westernized music, in the concert and two workshops of improvisation
were held during this event. These emerging practices clearly demonstrate that Japanese
musicians enjoy the Western way of creating music even in the context of traditional
Japanese musical instruments and culture.
2.3 The Zen Boom in the United States and the connection of Shakuhachi
to Zen
Whereas the Japanese have pursued appropriate westernized shakuhachi music
in order to adapt to the influence of bunmei kaika, Americans have regarded shakuhachi
as a spiritual and philosophical flute because of the Zen boom in the United States. The
interest in Zen Buddhism was also already present at the end of the nineteenth century
in the United States. Especially, mysticism has enhanced Japonisme, which had already
emerged in the 1860’s and which was popular among Western people. After World War
Ⅱ, the appeal of Zen Buddhism gradually became greater. People in American society
cannot help but think about questions related to human existence and what the nature of
reality is. Some of those contemplating these questions began looking for different and
innovative ideas to improve previous thoughts. One of the ideas that was introduced
was Zen. Zen not only changed their life but influenced various arts in the United States.
Before considering the relationship between Zen and art, it is important to explain what
26
Zen is and how it spread in the United States. The role of Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki had
great impact for many Americans.
In September, 1893, the World Parliament of Religions was held in Chicago at the
Columbian Exposition. This was the first opportunity for the United States to hear
directly from the representatives of Asian religions. More than two hundred
representative people discussed the importance of spiritual culture. Suzuki was the
student of one of members of the parliament, Japanese Zen master, Souen Shaku. In
1897, Suzuki went to the United States to convey the concept of Zen culture to
American people after the nomination by his teacher Shaku. Suzuki came back to Japan
in 1909, and he spent his time as a professor. After that, he visited the United States in
1950 and settled in New York in order to teach a series of courses at Columbia
University as a visiting lecturer. Suzuki explained that in Zen practice, personal
experience is essential. It warns against a fixation with the self. A crucial concept of Zen
is denial of “dualism,” and the goal is to achieve “wholeness.” “Western people start to
distinguish between the subject and the object. Zen is beyond the concept. Before
understanding the separation, we must understand “wholeness.” “Wholeness” is the
first” (Tada 291). Suzuki’s teachings reached American artists who had been seeking the
expression of new art which is closely connected with personal experience. The
27
influential lectures of Zen given by Suzuki matched with the desires of American artists
were key to Zen culture taking root in the United States since the late 1950’s. Americans
who were fascinated with the idea were widespread. They were not only artists, but also
psychologists and students, and nowadays, the idea of Zen spread out to the commercial
world.
The United States’ adoption of processes described as modernization,
mechanization and industrialization has helped bring about a nation with enormous
material abundance of almost everything. This fact has certainly made American society
more affluent but at the same time Americans have lost spiritual gratification because of
this trend. Suzuki felt that Zen was important to maintain the independence of humanity
in the United States. With that he decided to write more and more on Zen in English.
His lectures and writings have affected plenty of American artists. The composer, John
Cage attended Suzuki’s lecture and had private talks with him. Through this, Cage came
to be influenced by this oriental thought. In fact, Cage tried to remove the boundary
between art and Zen and to achieve what appeared to be the integration of the two.
From Suzuki he learned that the task of art was to wake people up, as Suzuki warns,
against a fixation with the self. Afterwards, Cage composed “4′33” in 1952.
Surprisingly, the music was performed without playing a note. For Cage, his interest in
28
Zen could also be understood as the denial of traditional concepts. American painters
having an interest in Zen also were eager to avoid the over-intellectual, analytical and
logical mindsets associated with their disciplines as they set out to emphasize individual
experience and intuition. Another artist, Ad Reinhart has frequently adopted Zen into his
works. Westgeest referred to the relationships between Reinhart’s art and Zen in the
research, Zen in the Fifties: Interaction in Art Between East and West: “It is striking that
he uses words like “pure,” “lightness,” “spaceless” and ”timeless,” as they are exactly
same words he used to characterize Zen painting”(68). As for Mark Tobey, another
painter in the United States, his “White Writings” also have not only dynamic silence
but also the endless depth. Furthermore, the relationship which exists in Zen between art
and meditation is also apparent in Tobey’s work. In these and many other examples, the
concept of Zen has been embraced in American art forms. The introduction and
popularity of the shakuhachi in the United States can also be related to the Zen boom.
For most Americans, shakuhachi is regarded as meditation and pure music. Professional
shakuhachi player, James Nyoraku Schlefer says in his website, James Nyoraku Schlefer,
“shakuhachi is the timeless sound of an ancient instrument,” “the sound is at once
sensual and spiritual, capable of great emotional depth.” His words describing the
shakuhachi clearly use the key words used to describe and express Zen imagery like
29
“timeless,” and “depth.” It can be seen that shakuhachi has been adopted as one of the
Zen arts. Westgeest says, “the specific use of a few terms in this thesis requires some
explanation. I have opted for the more general word ‘work,’ instead of the customary
designations ‘drawing’ and ‘painting.’ Some artists even tried to erase the boundaries
between drawing and writing” (9). These same responses can be clearly seen in the case
of shakuhachi, some play only for the music while some people blow primarily for
meditation. There are those people too who are interested in both characteristics. In an
interview with Karl Yoraku Spicer , he said, “shakuhachi is music, but it’s not music.”
There is a fact that shakuhachi represents something other than its music. I asked Ronny
Nyogetsu Reishin Seldin why Americans play “Zen music” with shakuhachi and Seldin
replied that “Zen music is a little bit of a misunderstanding, we are doing Suizen
(Blowing meditation).” This reply means that Zen music is not an appropriate
expression for them. When some American shakuhachi players play honkyoku, it
becomes just like meditation instead of regarding as music. That’s why, in this
discussion of shakuhachi, it is more appropriate to use the word “player” to describe
people blowing the shakuhachi instead of “musician.” So, I always describe them as
“player” in this thesis.
30
2.4 “Reversalization”
As I already mentioned in sections 2.2 to 2.3, Japan and America shakuhachi
communities have pursued different approaches. Historically, the cultural gap is clearly
seen between Japan and the United States. Whereas the Japanese have attempted to get
convenient and substantial richness while devaluing its traditional spirits, Americans
have embraced the spiritual benefits criticizing material culture. According to David
Plath, Rodrigues states, “Japan’s an upside-down world”（22）, Japan and America look
like reverse and in fact, we have been fascinated with the differences. Thomas Toyama,
an American shakuhachi player of Japanese descent, stated about the opposite lure of
cross culture in an e-mail message:
I believe that most Westerners including Americans of non-Japanese
ancestry (especially non-Asian Americans) are interested in fulfilling their
fantasy to be Japanese by dressing up in Japanese attire and performing
Japanese arts forms including martial arts, music and shakuhachi music too
(sic). I think it is the result of the media especially cinematic movies and
television documentaries on Japanese culture and arts (sic). For example:
Shogun (American made movie, made for American television),
Hollywood movies such as "Karate Kid" movies and Samurai movies. But
this also happens to Asian people including Japanese that want to fulfill
there fantasy of becoming Western including American by wearing
American attire and trying to speak English with all the "cool dialect
words" and listening, singing, dancing, and playing popular styles of
American music including rock, jazz, blues, country, etc.
31
A similar sentiment was expressed in this passage of Japan, Jawpen, and the
Attractions of an Opposite written by David Plath:
I’ve seen the disappointment on the faces of travelers arriving in Japan
these days. Tokyo, they discover, looks pretty much like any other
industrial mega-city. “The Japanese,” they complain, have sold out their
tradition for a mess of transistors.” These travelers may rush off to a remote
mountain village where (according to the guidebooks) they still can find
fragments of Jawpen (The “Real” Japan) (21).
Likewise, another player, Barbara Nyoi Krooss, mentioned the gap between
modern times and fantasy in a personal interview in her office in New York:
Shakuhachi is one part of Japanese culture that I believe I understand. My
understanding of Japanese culture is mostly romanticized fantasy. It’s not
modern Tokyo, Osaka, businessman and Hello Kitty. It’s old temples and
old styles. Japanese people understand European culture ... like suits,
dresses and classic music. They feel a sense of fantasy about different
things. Why don’t young people learn old things? They prefer rock music. I
like shakuhachi because of the old culture and history of Tokugawa and
Meiji [. . .]. Shakuhachi playing in America may also contain a certain
element of fantasy or “cosplay.” Instead of going to Yoyogi Park or
dressing up like Sailor Moon or Hello Kitty, we Americans get a chance to
pretend we are geiko, samurai, or komuso. It’s fun to travel into a fantasy
world…to get a sense of another time and another place outside of our daily
reality with a group of people who enjoy the same thing. I think we
Americans like to pretend that we’re Japanese, and want to get inside the
mindset of people in another culture and time.
Interestingly, the perception by Americans is different from that of the Japanese.
For Americans, comparisons of Japaneseness with American culture are regarded as
32
fantasy. For that reason, traditional shakuhachi has come to play an additional role to
construct a Japanese fantasy world. Meanwhile, the Japanese similarly have thought of
Western culture as their own enjoyable fantasy. This tendency can be seen clearly in the
decisions of the Japanese shakuhachi players to try western music including Jazz and
thus Americans have become traditional players who prefer to play honkyoku. In this
way, “reversalization”, this curious phenomenon exhibited by the diverging trends in
shakuhachi music between Japan and America, has occurred in the process of reciprocal
globalization.
33
CHAPTER 3 :“JAPANESE”AUTHENTICITY
3.1 Fieldwork in New York, 2008, Shakuhachi Dojo, KiSuiAn
Figure : 10 The inside of shakuhachi dojo, KiSuiAn in Manhattan, New York.
The following chapter is a description of the fieldwork conducted in New York,
NY from February 6 -14, 2008. During this period, I met shakuhachi players from the
New York shakuhachi dojo KiSuiAn ４ mainly and was able to hold interviews with
twelve shakuhachi players there. With the permission of a Japanese shakuhachi player
and teacher, Yoshio Kurahashi, who usually lives in Kyoto, I was able to interview them
after the shakuhachi workshop was held. The interviewees were widely varied as to age
and occupations. The age range was from 20 to 60 years old and the varied occupations
including professional shakuhachi player and a maker, to a psychologist, an industrial
34
designer, a nurse, and a student of jazz music. Two of the eleven interviewees were
women. Also I interviewed one player who does not belong to shakuhachi dojo in New
York. The gender of the interviewees was roughly consistent with the proportion of the
overall membership of the dojo, about 10% women as described by Ronnie Nyogetsu
Reishin Seldin, a representative of shakuhachi dojo. In KiSuiAn dojo, the players came
and participated from a variety of locations as listed: New York City, 24, Washington
D.C./Baltimore, 11, Philadelphia, 8, Rochester, NY, 8 and “Computer or Cassette”
students participating from remote locations, 30 (Germany 4, Canada 1, England 1,
Mexico 2, USA 22) for a total of 81 students. In the case of overseas students or those
that live a distance away from the dojo, he uses recordings on MP3 files transferred
over the internet to exchange music and recordings of practice sessions.
Next, I will focus on a specific player to find out what “Japanese” authenticity is
and how American players attain it in their playing.
3.2 The consideration from Interviewees, Four dimensions
Fortunately, my interviewees willingly cooperated with me in my questions and
the answers were highly intriguing and thoughtful. One American player, Jon Kypros,
gave me in a personal interview a suggestion to consider how American players
35
construct “Japanese” authenticity. The following is his answer to my questions.
Q:
What was your motivation to play Shakuhachi at first?
A:
At first, it was the connection with some Japanese things. My father, he
studied bonsai. When I was 8 years old, very young, my dad taught me
bonsai. He was not Japanese and he never went to Japan but he learned
bonsai. So, he told me bonsai and I was too young to understand different
racism and culturalism but I loved something about bonsai. I really loved
bonsai. And In my teenagers, I did bonsai. And as I got older, I learned as
its Japanese custom. I learned about “wabi-sabi.” I learned that the empty
space between branches is one makes too beautiful. Not wild branches but
empty space. Other branches are not an important part. That’s very unique
in art. And then, when I studied martial arts, I studied Kung Fu and then
Taekwondo, Korean and then Aikido, Iaido and Judo. But that’s when I first
learned like a mushin, when I learned Zazen. Yow know, and Taekwondo,
not so much, Kung Fu, not so much but Aikido and Iaido have it so I got
interested. And I got sick of tiring and suffer this. So I went back to bonsai.
And bonsai was very lonely and it’s very slow. So, I found a bamboo and I
made flutes like shinobue, different flutes, then eventually I did shakuhachi.
So, progression .
Q:
When did you play Aikido, Judo and Iaido?
A:
It was 15 to maybe 17. When I was doing Aikido, I grew up in the city like
here. It was very nice place but my parents broke up, and then me and my
mother moved to Florida. And the place I lived in Florida was not a very
small town. Mostly it was not very many races. So, I was very depressed.
[. . .] I like culture, I like culture, different names, any culture. You know,
Japanese, Korean, Chinese, any culture. But when I moved to Florida, it’s
not so much culture. It was not as much as New York, a big city. But I never
had met a Buddhist before. I never had met a Buddhist in my whole life. And
then, as I was doing Aikido, after training, I went to a beach. And there was a
Tibetan monk, walking back and forth at on the beach. It was very rare. I
was really surprised at something about him. He seemed very calm and
peaceful walking back and forth, doing the kind of meditation walking. And
because I was very interested, I was watching him, I was standing around
36
[. . .] I was too shy, very shy. And he said: “You! You! You! Come on here,
come on here!” So I shook hands and I said, “oh, where did you come
from?” He replied: “Good luck.” “Oh, thank you very much.” I ran away but
very happy. I didn’t understand it at the time. But something was very
different and very special. So I gave up martial arts, and I found shakuhachi.
Q:
Your big motivation to play shakuhachi is related to the Buddhist monk, isn’t
it ?
A:
Kind of. I like bonsai, I like making things. I always liked music. My father
drew to be artist. [. . .] My sister plays instruments like guitar and keyboard.
In my whole life, I always played instruments. And maybe in my whole life,
I’m interested in Japanese culture and in natural things like bamboo. I like
natural things like bonsai, like plants. So, it seems everything came together. I
was looking for something like doing bonsai, something like material arts.
And then shakuhachi has every aspect, plant, music and meditation. Very
happy…
His interview gave me a very valuable insight into how “Japanese” authenticity is
perceived. This “Japanese” authenticity would be impossible to apply to manga fans in
the United States. “Japanese” authenticity, what I say here, is created in a specific
context of shakuhachi culture. From observations and interviews with American players,
four ideals are involved in shakuhachi culture that American players have created,
namely nature, Zen Buddhism, Japanese culture and music. I will analyze how these
aspects are tied to shakuhachi in the following sections.
3.2.1 Nature
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First of all, American players sometimes play shakuhachi in the presence of
nature such as near a pond, a waterfall and a mountain (Figure 11).Why do American
players play shakuhachi at natural surroundings? They also feel sympathy to the natural
sound of shakuhachi itself: it can convey the voice of virgin nature. Although the
instrument is made of bamboo, there are roughly two type of shakuhachi, jinashi
shakuhachi (old type of shakuhachi) and jiari shakuhachi (new type of shakuhachi). ５
Whereas jiari shakuhachi is able to maintain its pitch stably, jinashi shakuhachi has a
more natural bamboo sound and simple appearance. Moreover, komusou used to play a
jinashi shakuhachi in Edo period. According to a study of Kiku Day, having jinashi
shakuhachi makes them someone like komusou (The fellowship lecture in the National
Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto, 2008). Japanese shakuhachi makers often export it to
the United States because jinashi shakuhachi is not so popular in Japan but in demand
in the United States. However, there is a shakuhachi maker who created more natural
shakuhachi. Perry Yung, a shakuhachi maker who lives in New York City, has made an
original shakuhachi which he calls “EARTH shakuhachi.” The moniker “EARTH” is
given to the shakuhachi. On his website, Home of Shakuhachi Bamboo Flute Maker
Perry Yung, he explained the meaning and the purpose to blow it.
EARTH shakuhachi means completely natural so they are “luck of the draw.”
38
They are meant for meditational purposes since people who meditate only
blow notes to feel vibrations and not play modern music so perfect Western
tuning is not even an issue. In EARTH shakuhachi, what matters is the tone
or timbral characteristic of each note. Basic shakuhachi techniques can be
employed on EARTH model flutes, but the advanced ones in the high second
octave may not be. By the way, it would take years of study to be able to play
advanced techniques. [. . .] EARTH Models are meant for beginners who will
not study gaikyoku or sankyoku shakuhachi with a teacher. But some
experienced players of honkyoku who lean toward the ZEN approach might
prefer an EARTH model. Most EARTH model shakuhachi are made from
the upper part of the bamboo, not the root. This means that they do not have
tapered bores. Root end shakuhachi has a natural tapered bore so I use these
for my advanced models (http://www.yungflutes.com/inoflashx.html).
Yung explained that EARTH shakuhachi is extremely natural so it may be
preferred by American players with Zen approach. Honkyoku including spirit of Zen
sometimes represents assimilation to nature. With that, the shakuhachi came to be
linked closely with nature. A jazz bassist, Karl Yoraku Spicer who plays shakuhachi
says “it evokes the images something like grass. Particularly, shakuhachi is a bamboo
and five holes, nothing else. A Western flute has keys and wires. It’s complex and
almost artificial. Shakuhachi is very natural. . .” So, American players pay attention to
the natural material of shakuhachi while feeling its simplicity in comparison with
Western musical instruments. The “natureness” of shakuhachi has brought “EARTH
shakuhachi” and what’s more, American players have come to play shakuhachi at
natural environment.
39
Figure :11 Playing one of the largest shakuhachi next to an enormous tree and playing
shakuhachi in front of a waterfall.
In fact, the members of KiSuiAn shakuhachi dojo have had the opportunity to
participate in shakuhachi camp. The camp was held from August 29th to September 1st,
2008 at the Temenos Conference and Retreat Center nestled on 56 wooded acres in the
beautiful Brandywine River Valley of historic Chester County, Pennsylvania.
Meditation foot trails meander through rolling hills, forests, meadows and streams.
Though the shakuhachi camp was held in the presence of nature like this, they also went
to a path of bamboo to make a large fellowship and share their feeling to the shakuhachi.
It looks very important for them to have the connection to nature and playing
shakuhachi ends up bringing them the experience of assimilation to it beyond mere
intimacy with nature.
Another example of the close relationship between nature and shakuhachi is the
following conversation among shakuhachi players using shakuhachi mailing list which
40
is a place for the discussion of any shakuhachi-related topic, on the internet in 1998.
Q Shakuhachi and Bonsai, is there a connection?
Bonsai and shakuhachi both refer to the “sabi,” of the expression
“wabi-sabi”... They both stand for the solitariness of the “one”.. The sound
of one shakuhachi....a bamboo forest. The one bonsai representing an entire
Forest.. The rightiousness of being solitary... (sic) (Ronnie Nyogetsu Reishin
Seldin)
There is a Japanese key word, “wabi-sabi.” Japanese aesthetic connect the shakuhachi
to the bonsai. Therefore, bonsai has something in common not only with nature but also
Japanese aesthetic. In reality, I saw some bonsai in the player’s house (Figure 12). So,
shakuhachi doesn’t exist as just the bamboo instrument and it is positioned in the
context of Japanese traditional aesthetics. In reality, American players seem to make the
most of the characteristics of shakuhachi so it doesn’t work without the network of
Japanese aesthetics.
.
Figure : 12 Bonsai and practicing of shakuhachi in the player’s house.
41
3.2.2 Zen
Suizen (Blowing Zen) and Zazen (Sitting Zen) are perceived as almost the same for
players in the United States. The intent of both is to pay attention, to be aware of the
moment, appreciating what is now. When blowing as suizen, shakuhachi is not
considered music, a performance, or even a musical instrument. It is meditation, a
spiritual thing. However, in an ensemble (shakuhachi, koto, shamisen), the music might
disturb the player’s mind because of its strict rhythm and tune. In contrast, playing the
shakuhachi as meditation while sitting down alone becomes peaceful. It is never music
but rather a spiritual expression. American players sometimes visit Japan to know the
roots of Zen (Figure 13). Zen practice has played a vital role in constructing “Japanese”
authenticity.
Figure : 13 Playing shakuhachi in front of the gravestone written as suizen (Blowing
Zen),Meian temple, Kyoto, Japan.
42
Figure : 14 Zazen style while playing shakuhachi.
While I participated in the intensive shakuhachi workshop held by Yoshio
Kurahashi in New York, 7-9 February 2008, I realized that Aaron Shragge played
shakuhachi with zazen, sitting Zen (Figure 14). When Japanese play shakuhachi on the
ground, the sitting style is usually seiza, formal style of sitting on knees. Shragge
frequently goes to the Zen temple in New York and practices zazen and his playing style
is also zazen. Nowadays he practices using both suizen and zazen. His purpose in
pursuing Zen practices is to find out what “myself” is and what the world is. Zen offers
insight into him.
Figure : 15 An ornament of komuso.
43
Figure : 16 Calligraphy, “Zen.”
Figure : 17 Some Buddhism tools.
Figure : 18 American player wearing tengai (mendicant hat of komuso).
Figure 18 shows American player James Nyoraku Schlefer, wearing tengai. When
44
I saw this picture at first, it appeared that he was imitating komuso very closely.
However, he had revealed his approach to shakuhachi in a previous interview as
documented on his website, James Nyoraku Schlefer.
I play music, I'm not a Zen Buddhist, and I don't practice meditation with any
kind of regularity, so that's not my approach (though there are still many
people who do approach it from that aspect.) I don't relate directly to that
older meditative tradition; I relate to it indirectly because I like the music
(http://www.nyoraku.bizland.com/).
When I met him to interview in a room of his studio on February 8, 2008, the
room was decorated with Zen materials show in figures 15, 16 and 17. Nevertheless,
according to him, those things are not collected for his interest. Most things are
souvenirs. I asked him why he was wearing tengai while he plays shakuhachi.
Cause it’s look. Look is cool. For Americans, it’s very strange. But when you
explain to American people about tengai, it’s a symbol of no ego, empty
spare which is good thing, no money, no home, no self. Tengai represents the
part of you that is humble. When musicians play, proud, very show off, but
when you cover your face, not proud. Very very pure music. And so when I
do tengai, people ask me “what’s that?” I say it’s a symbol of being very
humble. . .
Although he isn’t Zen Buddhist, he has been adopting a partly Zen Buddhist style
to popularize shakuhachi in New York because Zen way can be one of the draws to
attract beginners to start playing shakuhachi. In reality, in many websites of American
players, shakuhachi is regarded as a Zen flute. Zen has functioned powerfully as a
fascinating icon of shakuhachi. It has promoted its globalization in the United States.
45
3.2.3 Japanese culture
One of the unique transculturations of shakuhachi is a bamboo name. In Japan,
when players passed the examination of shi-han (Master License), in the case of
Tozan school, players always receive the bamboo name using the character
pronounced “Zan” originated from the head of the school, Nakao Tozan. Nowadays,
the Tozan school is the most famous school of shakuhachi in Japan but the school
has no relation to Zen Buddhism so many American players usually prefer Kinko
school or Myouan school related to Zen Buddhism. In KiSuiAn, the school is Kinko
school basically and the American teacher Ronnie Nyogetsu Reishin Seldin has two
bamboo names, Nyogetsu and Reishin. In Japanese, Nyogetsu means “like the
moon” or “the essence of the moon.” The first character pronounced “nyo” is taken
from the name of historical Japanese shakuhachi player Jin Nyodo. The name was
given to Seldin by his teacher Yodo Kurahashi ６ when he received the license of
Jyun-Shihan (Semi-Master) in 1975. After his return to New York, Seldin was
awarded the rank of Shi-han (Master) in 1978, as a result of his efforts to spread the
teaching of this instrument in America. In 1980, he received his Dai Shi-han (Grand
Master's license). Moreover, in April 2001, Seldin received a Koku-An Dai-Shihan
(Grand Master's license at the level of kyu-dan, or 9th level) by the Living National
46
Treasure, a person or a group which is regarded as a national treasure, Aoki Reibo.
The bamboo name that was given on this occasion was Reishin. Reishin means
“Heart or Spirit of the Bell.” The character which is pronounced “rei” is from the
name of Aoki Reibo. Seldin also has given a bamboo name to players who received
a license from him. For example, the bamboo name using the character pronounced
“Nyo,” “Nyohaku” means “like the essence of whiteness” and reflects the spiritual
nature of shakuhachi performance. Other names using the characters “Nyoshin”
means “the essence of spirit and truth,” “Nyoi” means “the essence of heart.”
Barbara Nyoi Krooss stated the derivation of the word in an e-mail interview:
This can be broken down to the elements meaning “Woman” and
“Mouth” ...which means “woman speaks,” which meant, “the truth of”
(apparently the ancient Chinese believed that women did not lie) and
Kokoro “heart/mind/spirit.” I think this is a good name for a psychologist
who plays shakuhachi, but a hard name to live up to. Nyoi also is the term
used for a Buddhist priest’s staff.
Seldin has given his students bamboo names approximately twenty times as a
proof of their earning and receiving a teaching license. As a result of it, according to
Seldin, he has run out of the character, “Nyo” and has started using the “Getsu” part of
Nyogetsu. At the 13th Annual KiSuiAn Masters recital January 25, 2009, Seldin gave out
2 new names, Wagetsu and Yogetsu. Besides, Seldin also has given shakuhachi maker
47
name, though it is not a name with a menjo (shakuhachi’s license). For example,
shakuhachi maker Jon Kypros received the name, Shingetsu, and he uses the name as
a hanko (personal seal) on his making flutes. Kypros stated in a personal interview that
“the given Japanese name is not so strange because my teacher Ronnie got Japanese
bamboo names in Japan.” When American players receive a Japanese bamboo name,
the perception is traditional proof rather than a strange thing. Players who got a bamboo
name seem to be attached to the given name. In the United States, a given bamboo name
becomes something like a traditional symbol and it has more flexibility and freedom in
comparison with Japan. Various bamboo names will develop more there.
Figure : 19 Shakuhachi grand master license.
In KiSuiAn, there are a lot of Japanese materials, tatami, Noh masks, calligraphy,
Japanese teacups, a haiku, a household Shinto shelf, a mokugyo (wooden gong), a
picture of komuso and an autograph of a sumo wrestler. Entering into this room, one can
wonder if this place is really in Manhattan and consider why this room is truly exotic.
But what do these cultural representations imply in a shakuhachi dojo?
48
Figure : 20 Noh masks, calligraphy, “ Boys and Ambition.”
Figure : 21
calligraphy.
Japanese teacups, wall hanging with haiku written on it, writing wa
Figure : 22 A household Shinto shelf.
49
On the whole, those materials function as a symbol of Japanese tradition. Inside
the shakuhachi dojo, there are two meanings that shakuhachi with traditional symbol
attracts other Japanese culture or mythical Japanese culture that has been constructed by
Americans who have adopted shakuhachi. A glance at the things in the dojo reveals a
collection that appears to have been gathered randomly. However, these materials are
connected with shakuhachi as an explanation of traditional Japanese aesthetics and of
shakuhachi’s Japanese background. For example, haiku is a short poem offering a
concentrated observation of time and nature. Shakuhachi has something in common
with haiku in terms of simplicity and nature. Likewise, Seldin stated the relations
between shakuhachi and other traditional Japanese culture in the interview on his
website:
In Japanese aesthetics there is the concept of johakyu, which is like an arc.
Any piece starts off very simply, then it rushes towards implosion, and
finally everything is stripped away and ends up very simple again, but subtly
different from how it began. In Japanese music every sound has that arc, each
section has that arc, and each full piece has the same three fold arc. So it's arc
upon arc upon arc. A classical piece would be in three parts normally - the
middle part being instrumental - they alternate from slow to fast to slow
again. In terms of pitch each part will start off on a low note, go high, and
end up low. You'll find this structure also in bunraku (doll theatre) it has three
acts, and the same with Noh Theatre. Even when you look at classical
Japanese ikebana (flower arrangement) you'll see that the arrangements have
three branches. Again, this is the johakyu arc. This is an aesthetic that isn't
really known in the West. (http://www.nyogetsu.com/interviews.html)
50
When I asked Seldin in the dojo why this dojo has many items of traditional
Japanese culture, he replied: “I can explain the meaning of Noh when my students asked
me it.” “Mokugyo (wooden gong) is also Buddhist instrument but it’s impossible to
make a melody. Shakuhachi can make any kind of melody.” Therefore, in fact, these
cultural representations play educational role to his students at the same time and
explain what the characteristic of shakuhachi is. In another respect, both a picture of
komuso and a household Shinto shelf coexist in the same room despite being from
different belief sets. Some may wonder why Buddhism is involved with Shinto.
Historically, the connection was called Shinbutu Shugo. ７ Since Buddhism was
transmitted to Japan in the fifth century, Japanese have worshiped both the Buddha and
their own traditional kami (Japanese God: the central objects of worship for the Shinto
faith.) from Shinto. This phenomenon has been called the synchronization of Shinto and
Buddhism. Although Buddha and kami are different from each other, they came to be
identified by the public as similar. So, a Shinto shelf in a shakuhachi dojo may reflect
Shinbutu Shugo in terms of history. However, teacher Kurahashi revealed that “a
household Shinto shelf is tied to his religion Tenrikyo.” Tenrikyo is a new religion
related to Shinto in Japan. Actually, when Seldin learned shakuhachi in Japan, he
belonged to Tenrikyo. Accordingly, these materials in the room reflect not only the
51
tradition of the Edo period but also Seldin’s personal background. The autograph of a
sumo wrestler might hold a similar meaning. Sumo means not only traditional sports but
is a traditional event closely related to Shinto so it might hold the same meaning of
symbol of a Shinto shelf.
After I interviewed some players, I went to the room of music instruments of
Metropolitan museum. I discovered two shakuhachi ８ there.
Figure : 23 Shakuhachi in Metropolitan Museum in New York
The following is the description from the introduction card.
The shakuhachi took shape during the Momoyama period (1534-1615), but
developed its final form during the Edo period (1615-1868), when it was
adopted by the komuso wandering monks. These monks, many of whom were
masterless samurai, kept the favor of the Shogun by acting as his spies.
Stripped of their swords, the monks altered the instrument, making it thicker,
longer, and slightly curved at the bell. This new design allowed the shakuhachi
to serve as a club (Metropolitan Museum).
Interestingly, komuso is emphasized in this sentence while portraying komuso as
52
similar or actual samurai warriors. So, in this sentence, the way to describe the
shakuhachi appeals to samurai-loving Americans.
Figure : 24 Shakuhachi in ukiyoe by Utagawa Kunisada and Toyokuni III.
Figure 24 shows shakuhachi in ukiyoe. These ukiyoe are often seen in the website
of American players. Japanese players rarely use these pictures to identify shakuhachi in
their website. I believe that these materials play a connecting role in shaping the
shakuhachi culture in the United States. By relating the instrument to easily
recognizable Japanese traditional culture such as bonsai, haiku, samurai and ukiyoe, I
believe that American players wish that shakuhachi may achieve an equivalent status
with them in American society. In other words, shakuhachi has been thrown into the
“myth-scape” which represents constructed cultural space by American perceptions.
This notion of “scape” comes from five scapes advocated by Arjun Appadurai,
ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, financescapes and ideoscapes. The reason
shakuhachi has been not created as “American” shakuhachi is that the United States has
experienced a mysticism, exoticism and Japonism. So, the localization of shakuhachi in
53
the United States resulted in the shakuhachi with more focused Japanese aesthetics such
as a bonsai, haiku, Noh, bunraku, ikebana, calligraphy, samurai and ukiyoe. Therefore,
the meaning of “myth” of myth-scape represents the perception of aesthetical collection
beyond just exoticism. Also when I use the word “myth” in this thesis, the meaning is a
little different from the meaning of “misunderstanding.” When Japanese players see
shakuhachi, they usually don’t regard shakuhachi as a traditional aesthetic and spiritual
perception like wabi-sabi or Zen, but regard as a musical perception. However, in New
York, shakuhachi usually works mainly in the traditional aesthetic network. I believe
that American perception came from their background like mysticism, Japonism and
Zen boom. So, the meaning of “myth” is based on the “difference” between Japanese
perception and American perception. Furthermore, not only shakuhachi has been
adopted by Americans into their imagined space, “myth-scape,” but also shakuhachi has
continued to recreating as myth material with emphasized aesthetical meanings in the
United States context.
3.2.4 Music
This section focuses on the musical aspect of shakuhachi but central concern is
why Americans play honkyoku. Musically, honkyoku enables the player to play freely
54
because there are no strict rules guiding form and play. Furthermore, the music is played
powerfully. In my opinion, honkyoku resonates with American features and values like
freedom and power.
Figure : 25 Honkyoku（The repertory of traditional solo shakuhachi music inspired by
Zen） The title is Tamuke.
In the United States, honkyoku is accepted favorably by many players although
the notation is mostly written in Japanese letters, katakana like ロ ツ レ チ リ “ro”
“tsu” “re” “chi” “ri.” Truly, even ordinary Japanese usually don’t know the meaning of
the shakuhachi notation even if the Japanese are familiar with katakana. I asked some
American players about the reason why performing honkyoku is preferred. Kypros said
in an interview:
I think there are many different reasons. But maybe, it is sometimes less
strict. It’s easier compared with like sankyoku. You can make small mistakes,
it’s ok. Another reason is a big interest in America in Buddhism. It’s a strange
cultural thing. Maybe it’s sometimes shallow understanding. Like a Zen
garden, it’s kind of like strange to me. So in America, there are many ways
you can find out, you can here find out about Zen Buddhism, maybe some of
the part of pop culture. People say that “I feel really Zen” but didn’t know
anything about Buddhism. They think that the understanding is just calm. So,
55
they say “I feel really Zen”. So, maybe it’s part of pop culture [. . .].
Shakuhachi is also no words. I think that there is a connection between
shakuhachi and Zen [. . .] Buddha is teaching a flower [Nenge Misho] ９ .
Buddha pick up a flower and did like this. It’s non-verbal teaching without
talking. I think it’s a good connection. . .
Ralph Samuelson said in an interview:
You know almost all Japanese music in Japan is related to text and song.
Shakuhachi honkyoku is not related to texts, it’s no song. For Americans, to
study Japanese music, I must study Japanese language. If I want to learn koto
music or shamisen music or even sankyoku of shakuhachi, I should know
Japanese language. But I can study honkyoku even if I don’t know Japanese
language. So, the first answer, we don’t have to study a language. So it’s easy.
But the second answer, some American people love Zen Buddhism and some
American people think that shakuhachi honkyoku is about Zen Buddhism.
So they like that. They say that I want to be Zen Buddhist. I want to be Zen
master. American people who study shakuhachi love to talk about
shakuhachi and Zen [. . .]. The last reason is that Zen is cool, kind of fashion.
From these two interviewees, it became clear that honkyoku has three big reasons to
fascinate Americans. One is that learning honkyoku is easy to learn in comparison with
sankyoku because Americans don’t have to learn Japanese language except for reading
the notations. Another is a relationship with Zen Buddhism. Additionally, honkyoku is
accepted as one of a pop culture having a feeling that it is a “cool.” Then, how do
Americans deal with sankyoku? I asked Daniel Nyohaku Soergel who has played
shakuhachi for twenty years, about the differences to a player between honkyoku and
sankyoku. This personal interview was held in his house:
56
Honkyoku, I feel, expresses the story of life in music. When you play
sankyoku, however, you have to find its unique beauty. Sometimes in
playing honkyoku, the beauty is comes out naturally. Everybody
understands this beauty when they hear the sound of bamboo. But in
sankyoku, I think you have to listen for it and you have to learn about a
culture, learn a style, then you can see the beauty.
I like opera, Italian opera, French opera. But a lot of Americans hate opera.
You have to first try to understand it. If you keep trying to grasp it, you
may succeed, little by little. You have to develop a feeling for the musical
language. It's not easy. But after you learned about the way opera is
expressed, it's wonderful. You can hear and understand it better. But you
have to learn about its musical language first.
But there is something about honkyoku; everybody intuitively understands
it. You simply listen. I think a lot of students don't enjoy sankyoku because
it is difficult to learn. Learning to play it is work, hard work. You feel the
effort. It's not all fun. But after you played many years, it gets easier. You
hear the beauty little by little.
I always try to play fifty-fifty: Half of my time playing honkyoku, half
playing sankyoku. I think sankyoku makes your mind sharp; you cannot be
lazy. If you sing an opera, like Mozart for example, your mind should be
sharp. If your mind is unfocused, the music will be terrible. When some
people play honkyoku, their mind is not focused. It's not really good.
So sankyoku and honkyoku both need concentration even though a
honkyoku melody is often simple and natural. When you play sankyoku, it
helps develop concentration needed for honkyoku. Americans interested in
Japanese culture often learn shakuhachi to play honkyoku. But Americans
who learn to play sankyoku, need a deeper understanding of Japanese
culture and history.
To these players, playing the shakuhachi, especially sankyoku music, requires an
understanding of Japanese culture. With this understanding, one can see that the cultural
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representation in shakuhachi dojo might be helpful for the cultural understanding
needed to learn shakuhachi music as well.
Figure 26: shakuhachi with seven holes.
Figure 26 shows that this shakuhachi is different from the conventional
shakuhachi in terms of the number of holes. In 1920, Japanese player, a head of Ueda
school, Houdou Ueda attempted to improve shakuhachi from basic five holes to seven
holes. By his invention, having seven holes enables one to play shakuhachi easily and
suitable for modern music. But American player, Ned Rothenberg points out the risk to
reduce the characteristics of shakuhachi.
The thing I love about the shakuhachi is its changing sound. The way kari
and meri notes change in character. Players who strive to play it like a
western instrument try to minimize this difference, to make the sound as
uniform as possible. For me, this is less interesting. This also comes from my
point of view as a multi-instumentalist. If I want to play jazz or classical
music with a unified flute sound, I play the western silver flute, which is
simply a better design for these types of music.
Kari, which Rothenberg states the characteristic of shakuhachi, means to blow by
putting the chin up, to raise the tone. Meri means to blow by putting the chin down, to
lower the tone. Playing shakuhachi needs delicate skills while using a jaw, western
instruments don’t have such skills. When using shakuhachi with seven holes, it
58
extinguishes skills of kari and meri. Kari and meri enables to make subtle microtone
and fine shading of continuous sounds. According to Barbara Nyoi Krooss, Brian
Tairaku Ritchie, a rock musician with the punk band Violent Femmes, who plays
shakuhachi, expressed the sound of honkyoku; “if you look at Western notation, the
notes are in jail. On the other hand, the notes of honkyoku are free from jail.” In musical
aspects, the differential sound with nature, meditation, microtone and ma (no sound)
made shakuhachi popular in the United States. In particular, honkyoku has a lot of ma
and Americans have been favorably impressed by the different concept that “no sound”
means also sound. So, American players pay attention to the musical differences and
understand the unique features of shakuhachi music.
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CHAPTER 4 : TRADITIONAL VS UNIVERSAL
4.1 The conflict between Americans as mythicists and Americans as
evolutionists
This thesis has revealed that the “myth-scape” has played a vital role in allowing
shakuhachi culture to take root in the United States. I believe that a researcher has to
keep a flexible angle to show the diversity of people. So, I introduce in this chapter,
about other opinions that are different from KiSuiAn dojo because some players criticize
the constructed traditional authenticity. Robertson, who studied cultural globalization,
pays attention to the conflict in the global context between the traditional and the
universal:
In numerous contemporary accounts globalizing trends are regarded as in
tension with ‘local’ assertions of identity and culture. Thus ideas such as the
global versus the local, the global versus the ‘tribal,’ the international versus
the national, and the universal versus the particular are widely promoted
(39).
In reality, some American players offer criticism to other American players whom they
see as being a different “type” of player. I define here two types of players, a
“mythicist” player and an “evolutionist” player. Whereas those players termed mythicist
are those whose quest for authenticity is related to the myth-scape, those described as
evolutionist are players who deny or don’t pay attention to the myth-scape. Some of the
criticisms offered from evolutionists are as follows: “Americans should not utilize
60
something like Zen Buddhism to popularize shakuhachi in the United States.” In an
email message, Ned Rothenberg stated “we just want to play the instrument well, we are
not interested in calling ourselves 'masters', selling teaching licenses, and taking
Japanese names.” In the United States, shakuhachi is in tension between traditional way
and universal way.
Figure : 27 Shakuhachi License, Semi-master, Master, Grand Master.
Although some players start to play shakuhachi because of Zen, Rothenberg changed to
his interest from spiritual aspect to shakuhachi music itself.
At first it was for meditative practice. I had tried to practice Zazen and found
it too hard. I thought, since I am a musician, how can I approach Zen through
music? The shakuhachi was the obvious answer. But of course, Zen is STILL
hard! As I learned to play the shakuhachi better, I began to just love the
music on its own. Now I look to find new gestures on the shakuhachi which
maintain the inner core of the instrument.
The teacher of Rothenberg, Ralph Samuelson stated:
Sometimes, I give a lecture about shakuhachi in many places. These days, I
always say that shakuhachi has moved from being an instrument associated
with particular time and particular place and has become the instrument of
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the world. Originally, shakuhachi is a Japanese instrument and the instrument
of Edo period. Today, it is the instrument of the world, shakuhachi
transformed. It’s no longer only a Japanese instrument. It’s much bigger than
that.
Samuelson regards shakuhachi as the instrument of the world and what he said
represents that shakuhachi has a possibility to spread out to the world with no Japanese
background. The process may be similar to that of piano, guitar and violin. These
instruments are regarded as European instruments but people generally don’t pay
attention to the origin and nation which was made those at first.
The American professional player, James Nyoraku Schlefer states honkyoku
music is universal sound, “I think this music is universal, it has a universal appeal, it
goes beyond being simply Japanese - it's human music.” So, for Schlefer, honkyoku
doesn’t mean just traditional Japanese music. Rather, he regards honkyoku as a good
music. Then, what is the universality of honkyoku? Indeed, honkyoku isn’t related to
Japanese song so it has universal nature compared with sankyoku. When I asked
Schlefer the meaning of “universal” more, he said “everyone is able to understand
honkyoku except Japanese.” In fact, a very few know the value of honkyoku in Japan
and Japanese listeners often will feel somewhat out of place with honkyoku music.
Schlefer also knows it. However, Schlefer accepts the fact that the word ‘universal’
doesn’t necessarily mean the same favorable reaction when even Americans listen to
62
honkyoku. It is similar to music of Mozart; many people love Mozart, but some people
dislike listening to Mozart. Kypros pointed out that whether honkyoku is universal or
not is based on the piece:
Everyone listens to honkyoku, if you have a concert, somebody is playing in
front of whole audiences. Some people are tired, some people are angry.
Maybe, Zen students help to be calm. So everybody reacts differently. I’m
not sure it is universal. I think it depends on the piece, too. Let’s say different
people all listen to a long piece, Kyorei. Many many people are the same
with Kyorei, they say “it makes me very calm, useful and very peaceful.” All
different cultures, if you look on the internet, many people say how do you
play Kyorei, Kyorei, Kyorei because of its simple but also makes people feel
very peaceful. So, maybe that’s universal and people feel peace. But some
shakuhachi people are irritated because of the pitch. Kyorei is a simple.
It is not simple to decide whether honkyoku is a universal music or not. But there
is no doubt that many American players are into honkyoku in comparison with
Japanese players. And honkyoku is perceived readily by Americans as beautiful sound
and peaceful melody. So, honkyoku is also appreciated as music regardless of Japanese
context in the United States. American players as “evolutionist” are seeking just the
music such as the beautiful bamboo sound, ma and the characteristic of microtone. On
the other hand, “mythicist” players regard honkyoku as a suizen (blowing meditation)
and something related to Zen temples and Buddhists like komuso. Of course, mythicist
players also know the music merit of honkyoku but they often don’t talk honkyoku
separating Japanese background. They focus on not only a beautiful sound of
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shakuhachi but also beautiful history and culture of shakuhachi. Therefore, if a player
emphasizes strongly the characteristics of shakuhachi music, the player will be an
“evolutionist.” In contrast, if a player is linked consciously and favorably with
honkyoku in Japanese context, then, the player will be a “mythicist.”
4.2 Shakuhachi in Hollywood Movie
The sound of shakuhachi has been adapted in many Hollywood movies. In this
section, I consider the relationships between the sound and the scenes in movies
because playing shakuhachi in Hollywood movies is based on both traditional context
and universal context. I conducted an interview via e-mail with a shakuhachi player in
Hollywood named Bill Shōzan Schultz. Schultz lived in Japan for ten years as a student
of shakuhachi teacher, Seizan Koyama. In February 1993, he was awarded the shi-han
(master) license and was granted the bamboo name, Shōzan. After he returned to Los
Angeles, he became a Hollywood shakuhachi player as well as a teacher. In an e-mail
message, I asked him about the effect of the sound of shakuhachi in Hollywood movies.
Schultz replied that:
The role of the shakuhachi in Hollywood movies has changed over the
years. In the past, ethnic instruments, like the shakuhachi, were used to
reinforce a scene in a movie and to suggest to the audience that a
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particular scene was 'foreign'. Over the last 10 years or so, ethnic
instruments, like the shakuhachi, are used not so much to reinforce that a
scene is 'foreign' but for the elegance or unusual quality of the sound
that the instrument can produce. To not easily identify the particular ethnic
instrument is valued in Hollywood films. And these particular unique
sounds can help to heighten different emotional feelings or responses that
the composer or film director wants to solicit.
What he is stating is that there are two factors of both “foreignness” and
“emotion” in Hollywood films. For instance, one famous movie using the shakuhachi is
The Last Samurai directed by Edward Zwick in 2003. The film stars Tom Cruise
playing the role of an American soldier, Nathan Algren. Algren gradually comes to
realize the spirit of the samurai even as he accepts an offer to train and modernize the
Japanese army in their struggle against the samurai. He eventually joins the samurai
warriors in their fight against the Meiji restoration and struggles to protect their tradition
and identity. Throughout this movie, the sound of shakuhachi was used to represent a
scene related to samurai and its spirit represented by the word Mushin (No Mind).
Another movie, Snow Falling on Cedars is a film directed by Scott Hicks. It is based on
David Guterson's novel of the same title. It was released in 1999 and was nominated for
an Academy Award for Best Cinematography. The experience of the concentration camp
and the prejudice against Japanese American because of Pearl Harbor were depicted in
this movie. Though the sound of shakuhachi has a symbolic effect of representing in the
65
struggling scenes of Japanese American people, it is also used to connect with their
emotions like fear, anxiety and anger. As Schultz mentions, it is important to consider
when discussing music in Hollywood movies that “the first rule in movies is that the
scene drives the film, not the music. Music is an adder, for mood, for tension, for
identifying a character, or whatever. The music follows the visual. The music is lead by
the visual.” He also mentioned the intersection of Hollywood and shakuhachi.
According
to
the
shakuhachi
website,
Schultz
made
the
original
word,
“Shakuhachi-ness” and tried to express its quality.
The Shakuhachi-ness is usually lost or dulled when the shakuhachi is played
as an instrument. It seems apparent that the shakuhachi is evolving into an
instrument and eventually it will be more accepted in non traditional
contexts. Film composers are listeners too and they, among others, are
desirous to capture the Shakuhachi-ness of the instrument they heard and to
somehow retain this sound or feeling in their score. But they are somewhat
restricted by current convention and are therefore reluctant to let too much
Shakuhachi-ness out of the bottle. Do not forget rule number one. Movies are
visual and people don't go to the movies to listen to the music
(http://www.shakuhachi.com/K-Schultz.html).
In other words, the meaning of “Shakuhachi-ness” represents “Japanese-ness” as
well because shakuhachi includes Japanese traditional contexts. Hollywood movie has
often tried to express universal expressions so the directions of shakuhachi have
changed equally in the movies. So, I’d like to explain how the sound of shakuhachi is
used in non-Japanese context in Hollywood films, by introducing another player.
66
Masakazu Yoshizawa (1950 - 2007) was also Hollywood player of shakuhachi as well
as multi-instrumentalist playing such traditional Japanese instruments as the shinobue,
hichiriki, and western instruments as the clarinet, saxophone, and other woodwinds.
Yoshizawa's work and music were featured in a number of major Hollywood
studio films and soundtracks, including The Joy Luck Club (1993) and Memoirs of a
Geisha (2005). Yoshizawa ultimately played the shakuhachi in dozens of different
movies and television shows. Yoshizawa played shakuhachi for Jurassic Park (1993)
and The Lost World (1997) directed by Steven Spielberg. Needless to say, a lot of
dinosaurs appear in these movies. Yoshizawa noted the effect in Hollywood movies,
‘They wanted a sound that Western music didn’t have--shakuhachi or other Japanese
instruments—a sound that was new and fit the film. In Jurassic Park, nobody notices
the shakuhachi playing. It sounds like a dinosaur’s cry.’ As a result, John Williams, the
famous composer of the soundtrack of Jurassic Park, said, ‘we’re going to use
shakuhachi’” (http://yoshizawa-masakazu.culturalnews.net/2005dec.html).
If one sees the movie, Jurassic Park and happens to notice the shakuhachi, they will
realize that the sound never represents Japan. As Yoshizawa said, it may represent a
dinosaur’s cry, anxious emotion and dangerous atmosphere in the scene. Furthermore,
he pointed out “American movies in the 1950s and 1960s used Japanese instruments
67
only in Japan-themed movies like Sayonara. But in the 1970s and 1980s, composers
started using Japanese instruments as an element of the sound.” Yoshizawa preferred
working on non-Japan-themed films where he can still use the shakuhachi or other
Japanese flutes. He said, “When they make a Japan-themed movie using traditional
instruments in kind of a strange way; I feel it distorts our tradition. I feel more
comfortable, and have more fun, working on other movies”
(http://yoshizawa-masakazu.culturalnews.net/2005dec.html).
In Discover Nikkei, a writer, Eileen Kurahashi comments about Yoshizawa’s idea:
‘Japanese music is Japanese music and American music is American music.
Different intentions and clear borders.’ He is disciplined and explicit about
the distinctions and the different traditions of each. ‘Otherwise,’ he stated,
‘musicians feel they can mix things up indiscriminately without honoring
either art form’ (http://www.discovernikkei.org/forum/en/node/1879).
What Yoshizawa felt appears to be the consciousness of deterritorialization from
Japanese traditional context and he speaks from the perspective of an evolutionist. To be
sure, the sound has widened but still represents something related to Japan. For example,
in the movie, Hannibal Rising directed by Peter Webber in 2007, Japanese exoticism is
depicted with the sound of shakuhachi, in the scene related a sword of samurai. So,
strictly speaking, shakuhachi has evolved as music while still maintaining its Japanese
68
authenticity in the United States.
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CHAPTER 5 : THE LIFEBLOOD OF AMERICAN PLAYERS
In this chapter, I describe the amazing relationships between shakuhachi and
American players. I have examined how shakuhachi was adopted by American players
and incorporated into their lives by introducing three cases.
5.1 Intimacy
For some American players, it may not be an exaggeration to say that they no
longer live without shakuhachi. It is no longer peripheral to their lives or simply an
interest. When I interviewed Allen Nyoshin Steir, who is a shakuhachi player as well as
an ex music teacher, in his home in New York, on 11 February 2008, he stated the
intimacy that he felt with the shakuhachi. He released two CDs of shakuhachi entitled
Castles in the Sky and Kokoro Kara: From the Heart. He emphasized that shakuhachi is
his “heart” in the following.
Q I heard that your motivation to play shakuhachi is related to your wife. Could you
please tell me more about it?
Before I and my wife were married, we were dating. She was my girlfriend.
She took me to cherry blossom festival. And Sensei Ronny was playing
shakuhachi. First time, in my life, I’ve ever heard the instrument. I’ve never
heard it before. I knew my girlfriend’s first husband was Japanese. So, I
wanted to impress her, make a good appearance. So I said, “Do you like that
instrument? I could play that.” So, she said “Ok.” And one week later, I
started to take a lesson on shakuhachi. One month later, I fell in love with the
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instrument, the instrument was in my heart. And that’s when I knew that I
was going to stop playing everything else and just play shakuhachi. After
playing one month, the instrument did something for me. That’s the story.
And being a music teacher, the notes or notation came easy for me, reading
Japanese notation was easy. Sound in the beginning was difficult to get. But
the more I played, the more the sound started to come. My job, on you
teaching school year off, there’s no work in the summer, children go to camp
whenever I am free. Summer time, I played fifteen hours every day. I lived
with the instrument. I went to sleep with my shakuhachi every day for one
year. I was not married at that time. I lived by myself, so all I did in the
summer time was play all day and sleep [. . .]. I just got divorced before and
it was my new companion, new friend. And after playing six months, I
played in my first concert. Very nervous. At first, no sound came out. “How
come no sound?” I don’t feel nervous, calm, you know, I feel calm. But my
lips started to shake. I could get no sound. So, the first concert was I just
blew air. Even though a professional musician, I said “how can this happen
to me?” I had to make up my mind. I said to myself, “Should I keep on
playing the instrument? I mean, should I quit after six months? Stop playing?
No more shakuhachi?” To myself I said, “Do I want to do another concert
with just air and being so nervous?” And I said I’m going to continue. I will
continue playing. Let’s try again for the next concert. See if it gets better.
And it was a little better. That’s the third concert, everything was fine. [. . .]
Good story?
Q2
What is the relationship between shakuhachi and your identity?
It’s a difficult question. I don’t think it’s the bamboo, however it’s my heart,
shakuhachi is my heart. I was a very good saxophone player, clarinet player.
But it’s not the same. I used to play a saxophone, rock’n’roll. The music is
hard. But it’s never my heart. [. . .]
Five years ago, I had a heart attack. My doctor said “ don’t stop blowing
your instrument. This is what keeps your heart strong. Do not stop playing”
and every time I see my doctor, he said me “ are you still playing? I said “ I
am still playing.”
For Steir, shakuhachi means not just bamboo but his heart. He never recognizes
71
other instruments as his heart. In fact, he stopped playing every instrument which he
had played after he met shakuhachi. Why did he describe the shakuhachi as his heart?
Even if he is an ex music teacher and can read Japanese notation easily, Steir faced the
difficulty of playing shakuhachi. He was conflicted whether he should continue to play
shakuhachi or not, but he overcame the conflict and didn’t give up playing shakuhachi.
Steir also experienced other hardships of life, divorce and disease. Shakuhachi with
mellow sounds gave him ease and it became a new companion. Also, playing
shakuhachi was often helpful to improve his health condition. When people get over
hardships, the experience remains deeply in their memories. I his case, shakuhachi
remained impressively in his heart and shakuhachi was adopted by him into his life, it
changed to something beyond a mere instrument, it became the partner to help his life
sharing with a lifetime. His experience of hardships changed shakuhachi to his heart to
reflect his life.
6.2 Inside
Many foreign shakuhachi players often state the importance to get an “inside”.
The meaning of an “inside” here is directly linked to who you are and what you should
do really. When I interviewed Ralph Samuelson, who is a professional American
shakuhachi player, in his office in Manhattan, on 8 February 2008, he mentioned the
72
meaning of the inside in detail. Though he was an ex-flute player, after he came across
the shakuhachi, Samuelson decided to become a shakuhachi player. Samuelson learned
to play the shakuhachi at Wesleyan University at first and then went to Tokyo to study
shakuhachi from Living National Treasure, Goro Yamaguchi. During his interview,
Samuelson told me that shakuhachi is my “teacher.” The contents of the interview
included philosophical aspects. I was surprised at his answer and it will show the close
links between shakuhachi and player’s lives.
Q: Is there any change by playing shakuhachi in your life?
There is a very big change. You're asking a very difficult question. If you
choose the shakuhachi life, you are choosing something that will be very
difficult. First of all, you have to practice the shakuhachi every day, no
matter what happens to you during that day. Maybe you had a very bad day,
maybe you worked very hard and didn't get home until midnight, but you
should still play the shakuhachi. Secondly, the shakuhachi is a hard
instrument to play. And thirdly, playing the shakuhachi is not always fun in
the usual sense of the term. You know, some musical instruments are just
fun to play. For example, I used to play the accordion, and that was fun.
When you play the accordion, you have a really good time. Playing the
shakuhachi is not fun in that sense, but but but the sound of the shakuhachi
is unbelievable. When you play the sound, the sound teaches you
everything you need to know. Why were you born? Why are you here?
Where will you go? Playing the shakuhachi can help you know those things,
and I really believe this is true. Yes, the shakuhachi life is a hard life, but a
beautiful, beautiful life.
-How old are you?
73
-24.
-You don't really need to think about much now, but you want to understand
something-- why do you live on this earth, why are you here?
-I don't know why I am here. I go to school, I study American Studies, I like
globalization.
-But why are you here? If you keep playing the shakuhachi, you can get a
good answer.
So, the shakuhachi life requires discipline, hard work, and some frustration,
but the sound is powerful. It doesn't matter if I am a beginner, average, or
professional, most of the time I am not happy about my sound. But
sometimes, very rarely, the sound is perfect. Maybe just once a year or even
less, the perfect sound, and that's the moment that teaches me everything I
need to know. The composer Toru Takemitsu wrote some interesting essays
about music, and in his score for the famous piece November Steps, in one
section above the notes he wrote these words-- unusual English, but very
beautiful, and I remember this all the time. It helps me understand
shakuhachi. He wrote, “it must be grasped interiorly.” This is not a concrete
explanation, but it tells you that you must understand something from the
inside. This is common to everyone who is playing the shakuhachi. What is
the meaning of our shakuhachi life? “It must be grasped interiorly.”
Samuelson explained honestly his near-related idea between shakuhachi and his
life. First of all, what Samuelson said to me was that the shakuhachi life is a beautiful
life as well as a hard life. Secondly, he explained the conclusive meaning of shakuhachi
life without mentioning concrete Buddhist word. It’s to get “inside.” Shakuhachi
becomes a philosophical tool to know player ’s identity and questions related everything
which players need to know, why I was born, why I am here, where I will go. So,
shakuhachi represents something like a philosopher as Samuelson states that
74
shakuhachi is my “teacher.” Although he mentioned his idea by quoting the words of
Toru Takemitsu, “It must be grasped interiorly,” the meaning seems to be similar to the
idea of Zen Buddhism. In fact, Seldin describes the perfect sound with Buddhist word,
Ichi-on Jobutsu. Regional correspondent, Catherine Pawasarat interviewed Seldin and it
was printed in The Japan Times.
‘I see the spiritual aspect as very much a part of my mission as a teacher,’
Seldin said, recalling the Zen saying, Ichi-on Jobutsu (one sound becoming
Buddha). ‘If you find the perfect sound, you can spread or create beauty,
serenity, enlightenment, so people can find their own quiet place…’
Here, the phrase Ichi-on jobutsu, which he said means the perfect sound. The perfect
sound, using Buddhist word or not, seems to be ultimate goal for shakuhachi players.
And the perfect sound offers players ideal conditions and suitable lives. So, for
American players spending shakuhachi life, pursuing the sound reflects their wish to
know completely themselves. Therefore, Shakuhachi is working in their lives, becoming
daily lifeblood.
6.3 Shout against war
Barbara Nyoi Krooss is working in Manhattan as a psychologist. When she first
listened to honkyoku, the tune entitled Jinbo Sanya played by Seldin in a concert twenty
years ago, she decided to choose the shakuhachi life. When I interviewed her in her
75
office, on 11 February 2008, she said to me that shakuhachi is not music but “a spiritual
journey.” She has a great passion on shakuhachi and her interview was filled with
intelligence and humor and what she told me was related to the incident, September 11
attacks.
Q1
I heard from teacher Kurahashi that you played Tamuke １０ for dead people after
September 11 Terror Attacks. Will you talk more?
Ok. But I didn’t play just Tamuke; I played many different honkyoku. For
example, Hifumi Hachigaeshi, Banji, Kyorei, Kokuu, or Jyakushin. I
chose the number five thousand because that was the first estimate of
the number of people killed in the World Trade Center on September 11th.
Before the attack, you could see the World Trade Center from this
window, right out there. I knew about fifty people who were killed on
that day; I knew them personally. So I took the number five thousand,
and I said, “I'll play five thousand honkyoku for the spirits of these
people who died, and also just for people in general, whose lives were
disrupted because of this.” Now, I have a new project; I'm doing ten
thousand honkyoku.
Q2
What is the purpose of your new project?
“For human stupidity.”… While I was playing these pieces, five thousand,
in the beginning, there were some people who were hurt and died. And then
war happened. They were killing people in Iraq. First, I would like to play
honkyoku, for them, too, but I can’t keep up with playing my honkyoku.
They are hurting more people. Then I can’t play even just only one
honkyoku for each person. I can’t keep up with it. So I’m playing honkyoku
for human stupidity, ignorance, illusion, all these things. So that’s a
religious thing, maybe. Religion, meditation, my Zen is playing honkyoku.
It doesn’t change anything. And maybe people will hear, maybe it will help
[. . .]. While I’m thinking about something else, the reason why I’m playing
is for someone. While I am playing, that is my intent. It’s delicate. I’m
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meditating on life, death and people being stupid, fighting. Ten thousand
honkyoku is for human stupidity. A lack of mindfulness. I'll learn more as I
play and meditate.
Q3 How was the reaction when you played shakuhachi for the dead people?
I think that Americans understand that because in the Christian tradition,
people say prayers for dead people. They say prayers for the soul of dead
people. Catholics believe that if they pray they will get people out of
purgatory into heaven. And their prayers…Catholic people and some
Protestants, you know, believe that prayers will help dead people to go
where their soul needs to go. So, the tradition we have here has this belief
that most people were raised with. The idea that your prayers can help dead
people. So, I don’t think that they consider that strange. Or they feel that
it’s that… if they are not themselves religious they will still feel that it
helps me come to terms with things. They may say what she is doing is for
herself. To help her understand, to come to terms with this. But I think in
general people feel that “ok. The worst thing she could do. She’s not
hurting anyone. This crazy old lady is not hurting anyone. She plays her
flute.” I think a lot of New Yorkers have had trouble coming to terms with
what happened understanding it, feeling the sorrow, post traumatic stress
disorder, whatever you want. So, I think people listening to this in general
felt that it was therapeutic. While I am playing, they could sit and think
about it themselves. And sometimes it’s easier to think about problems
when you have shakuhachi music playing. It helps calm your mind, it helps
what happens. It’s people getting touch with what’s inside. They say prayer
is talking to God, but meditation is listening to God. . .
As her teacher Seldin states, “ I tell my students that every time we pick up the flute, we
might be able to help cause world peace”(Pawasarat, The Japan Times), she lives up to
play shakuhachi while praying peace. In KiSuiAn, shakuhachi is regarded not only as a
musical instrument but as a peaceful tool by playing shakuhachi, she bravely tries to
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covey her message of no fight, no war, no stupidity to human beings. This activity is a
really amazing challenge and heart-rending shout to hurting society. Interestingly, when
dealing with shakuhachi as prayer, playing shakuhachi is accepted naturally in the
country with Christian tradition despite the Buddhism tradition of shakuhachi. Krooss
focused on the similar features to Christianity which honkyoku has nature of
“confession,” “prayer” and “devotion.” Then, she challenged to make the most of the
goodness of honkyoku sufficiently to convey her massage to human beings. So, Krooss
uses shakuhachi not only for meditating herself but also for wishing for a peaceful
world and to heal Americans busy lifestyle with various stress diseases.
Through these three cases, I have paid attention to the fact that shakuhachi
connects American lives deeply in various forms. Shakuhachi became a player’s heart, a
philosophical tool and peaceful message. Shakuhachi is not just a musical instrument
for Americans. It is a protean communication tool and works as strong lifeblood with
diverse meaning.
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CONCLUSION
My research has demonstrated a process of globalization through shakuhachi.
Only a very few know how to play shakuhachi in Japan, but through globalization, the
shakuhachi and its culture has developed in the United States. However, shakuhachi
music has caused an unusual phenomenon, “reversalization,” between Japan and
America. I have revealed the new possibility that the flow of globalization has to be
considered as reciprocal flows, not one-way from the center to the periphery. Japan and
America have pursued each other’s advantages.
The notion of five scapes, ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, financescapes
and ideoscapes, which was put forth by Arjun Appadurai, was applied by Alan Bryman
who wrote The Disneyization of Society (2004). In this book, new scapes, “system
scape” and “service scape” were created to explain effectively the cultural structure of
the Disneyization. This shows that the notion of scape becomes impossible to deal with
every cultural globalization by using solely the five scapes introduced first by
Appadurai. In this thesis, the globalization of shakuhachi has occurred in an area that I
term the “myth-scape,” which is composed of imagined Japanese space Americans have
perceived in Zen, bonsai, samurai, ukiyoe, haiku, Noh, etc. In other words,
“myth-scape” means “authentic space.” Authenticity is mostly different from the actual
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real situation, but creating authenticity has a significant meaning for people who are
involved with different cultures. It seems to be a similar structure that myth has been
enshrined by a lot of worshiped people. Myth is not generally real, but it is often
regarded as something special. Shakuhachi has created special meaning space and
American players have enjoyed playing shakuhachi in the authentic traditional space.
My idea of “myth-scape” may be near to ideoscapes so it’s not entirely a new scape, but
by keeping the global phenomenon in the context of created space, I believe that we can
grasp effectively the transcultural meaning all the more. The myth-scape has powerfully
inhibited the simple adaptation of a deterritorialized shakuhachi which lost its moorings
from Japanese tradition. Rather, the process of globalization within this scape evinced a
quite unique phase in localization of shakuhachi in New York City. The territory where
shakuhachi culture has taken root is “overterritorialization” and I revealed that
shakuhachi has linked to Japanese aesthetics such as wabi-sabi, ma and johakyu through
other Japanese culture and it has also fulfilled to create more Japanese fantasy world.
American players have tried to understand unique and different values of shakuhachi
and have enjoyed playing shakuhachi from the perspective not only of music but also
Japanese contexts.
In my research, I focused on how American shakuhachi players have created the
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shakuhachi culture, and explored the role of actual players who helped bring about the
globalization of shakuhachi. When shakuhachi was introduced in American society, it
changed from just a musical instrument or piece of bamboo to a medium with which to
heal American busy lifestyle. Besides, authentic shakuhachi has been created to define
the Japanese characteristics in comparison with Western culture. American players
focused on cultural difference that Japanese people usually don’t notice. And obviously,
the shakuhachi has changed the lives of participants in its culture, dramatically bringing
close meanings in their lives.
Expansion of cultural boundaries will likely continue to increase even more in the
future. Then, I believe that globalization should not be discussed without seeing actual
people’s activity. If we talk about it only in theory, we would miss intentions that they
try to express and a lot of individual diversity. Humankind must learn transcultural
meanings of various aspects of culture and learn to examine culture in a particular
country’s historical and social context. If we try to do so, we will be able to understand
other cultures more deeply and at the same time, we will end up re-discovering our own
society and what our culture is.
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Notes
1
KiSuiAn shakuhachi dojo has an important connection to Kyoto, Japan where I live because
Ronnie Seldin, the representative of KiSuiAn, learned shakauhachi in Kyoto as a student of
Yodo Kurahashi. Fortunately, before my fieldwork, I could contact Yoshio Kurahashi, the son of
Yodo Kurahashi. In reality, he is also a well known shakuhachi teacher as well as a player, “for
at least the past ten years. . . [he] has taught substantially more gaijin (foreigner) students than
Japanese students”(Lee 1993:10). Since 1995, Yoshio Kurahashi has had an intensive
shakuhachi workshop in Boston, New York, and Colorado. With that, he had written the articles
entitled Ikoku Kenbun Shakuhachi Yowa (memoir of shakuhachi experiences in foreign
countries) from 1999 to 2002 in the magazine, Hougaku Journal. He is familiar with
shakuhachi players in the United States and told me his experience and helped me make
arrangements to meet players in New York. Accordingly, I could get information of American
players from the Japanese point of view at the same time because he also has experienced the
differential teaching to American players. He said to me that Japanese students always follow
the teacher’s instruction, but American students frequently ask why I do so. Therefore, he has
come to explain logically the way to play shakuhachi as much as he possibly can. Furthermore,
as he explain the history of the temple that komuso played shakuhachi, American players are
interested in playing shakuhachi all the more. If I tried to conduct my fieldwork by myself
without his cooperation, I might not be able to interview American players sufficiently. When
his workshop was held in New York, I also participated in it and interviewed several American
players in back and forth of the workshop.
2
A person or a group which is regarded as a national treasure while still alive.
In 1950, the Government of Japan began to designate certain individuals or groups who
embodied intangible national cultural values as living human treasures, just as places or things
of great cultural value are designated as national treasures, thus becoming eligible for special
protection and support. In the case of shakuhachi player, Goro Yamaguchi, Reibo Aoki and
Houzan Yamamoto are known as “Living National Treasure.”
3
Teitoku Sakaki (1858～1939) was born in Nagasaki. He learned oil painting from Yuichi
Takahashi. His main job was as a painter but he was also a musician with Shi-han (Master
license) license of shakuhachi and could play Western instruments such as a violin and a piano
as well.
4
KiSuiAn means House of Blowing “emptiness.” The name was given to the teaching school of
Ronnie Nyogetsu Seldin by his teacher, Yodo Kurahashi in 1975.
5
There are two ways to make shakuhachi. One way is called Jiari, which has paste dabbed
inside the bore. (This paste is made of powder and lacquer.) The other type is called Jinashi,
which has no paste in it.
6
Yodo Kurahashi was the student of the shakuhachi player, Jin Nyodo.
7
Buddhism and Shinto were fused together. In 1868, the Meiji government enacted a policy
called shinbutsu bunri, which demanded the separation of Shinto and Buddhism. At any rate, it
has been regarded as a part of Japanese history or traditional culture.
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8
Gift of Mrs. Howard Mansfield, 1948 and the Crosby Brown Collection, 1889.
9
Nenge Misho – “smiling and twirling a flower” transmission from Shakyamuni Buddha to
Mahakashyapa, from master to student.
10
“Tamuke” belongs to the pieces with a liturgical function, “Confession,” “Prayer,”
“Devotion,” “Incense-burning,” etc. It is played either at funerals, or on the occasion of the
commemorative.
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Appendix
Snake shakuhachi? in the studio
This picture shows also a shakuhachi in a much different shape. When I asked what this
was, the answer that came was that it was a joke. Imaging the meaning of this shakuhachi, by
bending the shakuhachi, it can make a deeper or lower sound. Although this shakuhachi looks
strange like a snake, the instrument may reflect a deeper quest for a more beautiful sound and
American players enjoy playing shakuhachi music.
Contrast list between shakuhachi note and Western note (Shakuhachi teaching book of
Western notation by a living national treasure, Houzan Yamamoto).
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Personal Interview
Hack, Thomas. Personal interview. 10 February 2008.
Kilthau, Jane. Personal interview. 9 February 2008.
Krooss, Barbara Nyoi. Personal interview. 11 February 2008.
Kypros, Jon Shingetsu. Personal interview. 9 February 2008.
Ralph Samuelson. Personal interview. 8 February 2008.
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