1

Corso di Laurea magistrale (ordinamento ex
D.M. 270/2004)
in Lingue e civiltà dell'Asia e dell'Africa
mediterranea
Tesi di Laurea
The concept 'roshia' (Russia) in
the Japanese print media.
The case of Asahi Shinbun.
Relatore
Ch. Prof. Paolo Calvetti
Correlatore
Ch. Dr. Toshio Miyake
Laureanda
Renata Nazarenko
Matricola 845055
Anno Accademico
2013 / 2014
要旨
本論文の目的は、日本の朝日新聞のディスコースにおける「ロシア」と言うコンセプト、
日本語の語学的な世界観におけるこのコンセプトの表し方、また、「ロシア」と言うコンセプト
の構造の明確化である。そのため、朝日新聞の２０１３年１月１日から一年間に発行された「ロ
シア」と言う語を含む記事を分析した。
本論文の第一章では研究の目的とその研究方法を詳細に説明する。それに加えて、文献レ
ビューやこの研究で利用される認知言語学の基本的な用語の説明を含み、第一章は日ロ関係、世
界のロシアに対する見解、また、ロシアに関する一般的なステレオタイプについて述べる。
具体的には、本研究のタスクは第一に、他の国とロシアとの関係や人文科学におけるこの
関係の解釈に関する文献レビュー、コンセプトの構造を基礎とするジャーナリスティックな文章
の特徴について記述することである。第二に、朝日新聞における「ロシア」と言うコンセプトの
表れ方が語学的にどのような手段を用いられるかの詳細な記述である。第三に、コンセプトを現
す語彙素の文字通りの意味に基づく「ロシア」と言うコンセプトのフレームモデリングとコンセ
プトの周囲にある語彙素の間接的な意味に基づくメタファーモデリングである。第四に、朝日新
聞のディスコースにおける、異なる価値観のある国としてのロシアに関する見解の研究である。
最後のタスクは、朝日新聞に描写されている通りにロシアの社会的、文化的なイメージの構成で
ある。
そのような目的を果たすために本論文では、次の方法が使用される。まず、演繹と帰納推
論など、一般的な科学的アプローチを研究の基本とする。そして、複合的な分析であるコンセプ
ト分析は次のような構成要素を含む：Ａ．日本の印刷メディアにおける「ロシア」と言うコンセ
プトを表す語学的な手段の説明、Ｂ．ジャーナリスティックな文章の「ロシア」と言うコンセプ
トを表す重要な語彙素の分布解析、Ｃ．ロシアについての知識のフレームの集合、あるいは知識
の構造として実現するフレーム分析、Ｄ．コンセプトの特質の統計分析である。
第二章は「ロシア」と言うコンセプトの構造を構成するため、それを表す語彙素の分布解
2
析を行う。それに基づいてフレームとメタファーモデルの基礎になった核心の意味素、また、
「ロシア」と言うコンセプトを顕在化する核心の統語構造を論証する。動詞句はコンセプトのフ
レーム構造のシナリオと言う動的な側面を構成する一方、名詞句、形容詞句などはスロットと言
う静的な側面を構成することにも触れる。最後に、朝日新聞のディスコースにおけるロシアにつ
いてのステレオタイプはどのように表れるかも考察する。
第三章では、第二章で発見されたデータを参考にしながら、フレーム分析を行った。結論
として、「ロシア」と言うコンセプトは七部の分節構造があると理解した。そのコンセプトは朝
日新聞のディスコースにおける日本語の語学的な世界観の一部分であると考えられる。例えば、
フレーム構造によって、日本文化の担い手である朝日新聞の記者に、どんな国家の特徴が基準、
もしくは偏差と認知されているかが明確になった。そして、ジャーナリスティックな文章の特徴
のために、ロシアについての知識は単純化され、ステレオタイプ化されたことを最終的に結論づ
ける。
3
CONTENTS
Introduction........................................................................................................................................7
Chapter I. Cognitive researches
1. Conceptual researches
1.1.1. Cognitive linguistics: terms and postulates............................................................................11
1.1.2. Concept, its definition, features, structure..............................................................................13
1.1.3. Researches on concepts.......................................................................................................15
1.1.4. Linguistic consciousness.......................................................................................................16
1.1.5. Frame modeling method........................................................................................................17
1.1.6. Metaphor and metaphoric modeling as one of the principle ways conceptualization............18
1.2. Discourse and features of journalistic texts
1.2.1. Discursive approach to the study of political journalistic texts..............................................19
1.2.2. Properties of the language of mass media, their organization and functions.........................20
1.3. Researches on stereotypes about Russia and perception of Russia in other countries
1.3.1.Role of stereotype and “friend or foe” category in the perception of a different culture.........23
1.3.2. Japan-Russia relations: historical aspects.............................................................................25
1.3.3. “East - West” dichotomy in the construction of Russian self-identification.............................30
1.3.4. Russian autostereotypes and self-identification.....................................................................32
1.3.5. Russia's image and heterostereotypes about Russia ….......................................................47
Conclusions to the chapter I............................................................................................................41
2. Means of actualization of the concept 'roshia' in Asahi Shinbun.........................................44
2.1. Denomination of the country “ロシア roshia”　as the means of actualization of the
concept 'roshia'
2.1.1. Means of actualization of the concept:　”ロシア roshia + verb” (as the subject of
action)..............................................................................................................................................46
2.1.2. The means of actualization of the concept: verb + ロシア roshia (as an object of action)....51
2.1.3. Lexemes “ロシア roshia”, “ロシアの roshiano”, “ロシア人 roshiajin” in the syntactic position
of a predicate as the way of actualization of the concept 'roshia'....................................................52
2.1.4. The way of actualization of the concept: “attributive + ロシア roshia”（“ロシア roshia” as an
object defined by an adjective/adjectival noun/relative clause）......................................................53
2.1.5. The way of actualization of the concept: “ロシア roshia　＋　postposition”..........................55
2.2. ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshiano + noun and words with the rook ロ ro as means of
actualization of the concept 'roshia'
2.2.1. Word-combinations “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun” as means of actualization of
the concept......................................................................................................................................58
2.2.2. Lexemes “ロシア人 roshiajin”/“ロシアの人 roshia no hito”/“ロシア系 roshiakei”, etc. as
4
means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'..................................................................................64
2.2.3. Other words with the root ロro as means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'..................66
2.3. Other word-combinations as means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'.............................68
2.4 Set and frequency phrases as means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'...........................71
2.5. Realization of stereotypes on Russia within the discourse of the newspaper Asahi
Shinbun............................................................................................................................................77
2.6. Realization of the “friend of foe” category within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun....................82
Conclusions to the chapter II...........................................................................................................86
3. Structure of the concept 'roshia'
3.1. Frame “Russia is a country/territory”.........................................................................................91
3.1.1. Subframe “country”................................................................................................................91
3.1.2. Subframe “soil”.......................................................................................................................92
3.1.3. Subframe “space”..................................................................................................................92
3.1.4. Subframe “geography”...........................................................................................................94
3.1.5. Subframe “geographical objects”...........................................................................................95
3.2. Frame “Russia is a state”........................................................................................................100
3.2.1. Subframe “characteristics of the state”................................................................................100
3.2.2. Subframe “structure of political authorities”.........................................................................110
3.2.3. Subframe “relations of Russia with other countries”............................................................115
3.2.4. Subframe “defense”.............................................................................................................123
3.2.5. Subframe “economy of Russia”...........................................................................................126
3.2.6. Subframe “finance”..............................................................................................................129
3.2.7. Subframe “industry”.............................................................................................................131
3.2.8. Subframe “culture”...............................................................................................................135
3.2.9. Subframe “sport”..................................................................................................................139
3.2.10. Subframe “time of Russia”.................................................................................................140
3.2.11. Subframe “events”..............................................................................................................142
3.2.12. Subframe “society”.............................................................................................................143
3.2.13. Subframe “people of Russia”.............................................................................................145
3.3. Frame “Russia is a terminal point”..........................................................................................152
3.4. Frame “Russia is a starting point”...........................................................................................153
3.5. Metaphoric model “Russia is a human being”.........................................................................155
3.5.1. Subframe “social features”...................................................................................................155
3.5.2. Subframe “bodily features”...................................................................................................157
3.5.3. Subframe “features of will”...................................................................................................158
3.5.4. Subframe “features of speech”............................................................................................159
5
3.5.5. Subfame “mental features”..................................................................................................159
3.5.6. Subframe “emotional features”............................................................................................160
3.5.7. Subframe “features of character”.........................................................................................161
3.6. Metaphoric model “Russia is an artifact”.................................................................................162
3.6.1. Metaphoric model “Russia is a mechanism”........................................................................162
3.6.2. Metaphor “Russia is a commodity”......................................................................................163
3.6.3. Metaphoric model “Russia is a house”.................................................................................163
3.7. Metaphoric model “Russia is a live creature”..........................................................................164
Conclusions to the chapter III........................................................................................................164
Conclusions...................................................................................................................................167
Bibliography....................................................................................................................................171
6
Introduction
The object of this research is the verbal realization of the concept 'roshia' in the Japanese
language as it is represented within the discourse of the Japanese newspaper Asahi Shinbun.
The importance of the research, dedicated to the delineation of structure of the concept
'roshia' and the forms of its realization, consists, first of all, in the orientation on one of the leading
currents of modern linguistics, that is cognitive linguistics and cognitive modeling of languages.
Under the hypothesis that the knowledge of a person about the world and the way he/she classifies
it are reflected into their language; on the other hand, “the language is the only means that is able
to help us to enter into the hidden spheres of human mind” 1, the conceptual analysis helps
approach common regularities and a specific character of the human learning of the world by
means of languages.
Secondly, the importance of study of the concept 'roshia' in the discourse of Japanese
printed media by the example of Asahi Shinbun can be explained by the importance of Japan for
Russia, as well as by the significance for Russia of political, cultural, social, economic and scientific
contacts with Japan. These contacts have been influenced by the periods of hostility and
indifference, which sometimes gave place to friendship and collaboration. Today's image of Russia
in Japan tends to be negative: Russia is not seen as an attractive investment object, the
development of business collaboration is slow and cultural contacts are few. The present study
may help shed light on the reasons of the current situation in Japan-Russia relations. The study
does not aim at the contribution to the creation of objective notions of the nations about each other,
but at the construction of a generalized vision of Russia according to the influential newspaper
Asahi Shinbun.
G.W. Leibniz wrote: “languages are really the best miracle for the human spirit and... by
means of thorough analysis of the words' meanings we can understand better the activities of the
mind”2. Recently, the conditions of international, inter-ethnic relationships have become
complicated, and researches into the field of a language as means of the world conceptualization
are quite important. This kind of knowledge helps people approach the vision of themselves, their
country and their compatriots through eyes of another nation, foresee conflicts with other countries
and to some extent to prevent them.
.
Finally, the problem of notions of different nations about each other is very complicated and
contradictory. Every nation divides the world into two poles: a “Self” (native, familiar world, close to
a given nation) and an “Other” (the world of other nations, alien and often incomprehensible to a
given nation). The relations “Self – Other”, “familiar – unfamiliar” find their reflection into languages.
The difference between “Self” and “Other”, intrinsic to human beings from extreme antiquity, is
realized, first of all, in the repulsion of “alien” as unacceptable, and “the perception of a different
1 Valentina MASLOVA, Cultural linguistics, Moscow, Akademia, 2001.
2 Quoted from: Natalia SANTSEVICH, Modeling of world-views on the basis of bilingual corpus of
journalistic texts (metaphors and semantic oppositions), Kemerovo, 2003.
7
country is always realized through the prism of proper national values and features of character” 3.
Consequently, the perception of Russia and Russians in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun can
potentially give abundant material for the study of what is seen as a norm and deviation according
to the policies of this newspaper.
The material of the research consists of approximately 3.300 syntactic constructions that
include key words (“ロシア” roshia or other words that represent the concept), chosen by means of
continuous sampling technique from texts of Asahi Shinbun over the period of one year (2013).
The choice of journalistic texts as the material of research is determined by the premise that the
language of mass media is in the close connection with the life of a given society. T. van Dijk has
pointed out that “the mass media are probably the most widespread form of discourse that
reproduces in symbols the notion of power, and which realizes the processes of social cognition” 4.
The choice of Asahi Shinbun is caused by the fact that it is the second biggest national newspaper
with the circulation of around 7.61 million copies for its morning edition and the readership of more
than 18 million people, 38% of whom are universities graduates 5, and by the fact that in general its
editorial policies can be characterized by the left-wind deviation and the inclination for
progressiveness.
The aim of this research is the definition of structure of concept 'roshia' within the discourse
of the newspaper Asahi Shinbun.
The tasks of the research are:
1. literature review on the relationships of Russia with other countries and its perception in
humanities, the revelation of features of journalistic texts as a source for studies of
conceptual structure, definition of basic terms that will be used in the present research. The
task will be fulfilled in the first chapter of the present thesis;
2. the second chapter will be dedicated to the complex description of linguistic means and
ways of realization of the concept 'roshia' in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun;
3. the third chapter will be dedicated to the frame modeling of the concept 'roshia' (on the
basis of revealed literal meanings of lexemes, that actualize the concept) and metaphoric
models of the concept (on the basis of indirect meanings of words that enter its
surrounding); and to the identification of patterns of Russia's perception (the perception of a
country as a different system of values) by authors of Asahi Shinbun.
The research methods. In order to accomplish the formulated tasks the following methods
will be used:
1. literature review, methods of deductive and inductive reasoning as common scientific
methods;
3 Olga GRISHINA, Frame model of the concept “America” in modern Russian language. Abstract of PhD
dissertation, Kemerovo, 2004.
4 Teun Adrianus van DIJK, News as discourse, Moscow, Nauka, 1988.
5 Data Asahi Shinbun Adevertising Division (http://adv.asahi.com/modules/english/)
8
2. method of conceptual analysis that consists in the application of the following methods:
a) the description of ways and means of realization of the concept 'roshia' in the Japanese print
media;
b) the analysis of lexical compatibility of the key lexeme in journalistic texts;
c)
the method of frame analysis that allows to represent knowledge about Russia as a set of
frames (structures of knowledge);
d) statistical analysis of concept's features.
As it is considered that “the more methods and techniques are applied in a research, the
more features of a concept will be revealed, and the more veritable will be a constructed structure
of a concept”6, the complex methodology will be applied in this study.
As it will be shown in the part “Russia's image and heterostereotypes about Russia” of the
first chapter, many researchers have conducted their studies on the perception of Russia abroad
and in Japan in particular. But the scientific novelty of the present research consists in the fact that
the object of the research is a sociocultural concept studied in the frame of cognitive linguistics. For
the first time, the means of linguistic expression of the concept 'roshia' (as well as frames and
slots that comprise its structure) will be studied in journalistic texts in order to approach the
specific character of vision of a fragment of the world, which is called “Russia”, in the discourse of
Asahi Shinbun.
6 Zinaida POPOVA, Ivan STERNIN, Linguistic consciousness and other types of consciousness, Voronezh, Istoki,
2003.
9
CHAPTER I
COGNITIVE RESEARCHES
10
1. Conceptual researches
1.1.1. Cognitive linguistics: terms and postulates
The modern linguistics pays increasingly more attention to the theory of W. von Humbolt,
according to which different languages reflect the world in different ways. This interest is reflected
by various researches on languages (texts) that bring on the forefront different ways, which the
mankind, a definite ethnic group or society uses to comprehend and conceptualize the world.
The ways of conceptualization of the reality, formation and representation of the knowledge
are the key aspects of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics that studies linguistic
consciousness in respect to the categories of prototypes, concepts, conceptual frames (G. Lakoff,
C. Fillmore, E. Kubryakova, A. Chudinov, M. Minsky).
The study of knowledge, utilized during the verbal communication is one of the leading
fields of the cognitive science. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary scientific study of
knowledge and comprehension, study of the results of the world perception, of subject-cognitive
activities of people, accumulated as an acquired and processed system of data, represented in
some way to the human consciousness, which is the base of mental or cognitive processes 7.
Gerasimov and Petrov have argued that “behaviour determination, one of the core questions of
psychology, have got an important answer within the framework of the cognitive science: human
behaviour is determined by the knowledge a person has”8.
The origin of this school is connected with the research activities of American linguists G.
Lakoff, C. Fillmore, L. Talmy, W. Chafe and was defined by the deconstruction of the structuralism
ideology.
N. Chomsky in 1980 argued, that the language consists not only of phrases and it is a
concrete conductor of information, abstracted from speakers and entourage, but it also includes
the knowledge about language propositions, which speakers have, that is it includes linguistic
competence9.
In one of his works N. Chomsky (1988) have suggested, that the following issues are the
most important for the modern linguistics:
1. What is language knowledge? What is there in the mind of an English, Spanish or a
Japanese native speaker?
2. How does the system of knowledge evolve into the human mind?
3. How is this system utilized for the production of speech?
4. What are the physical mechanisms, playing a part of material base for this system of
7 Elena KUBRYAKOVA, “Initial stages of cognitive science formation”, Issues of linguistics, 3, 1994.
8 Vladimir GERASIMOV, Victor PETROV, “On the way to a cognitive model of languages”, Novoe v zarubezhnoi
lingvistike, 23, 1988.
9 Noam CHOMSKY, Rules of representations, New York, Columbia University Press, 2005
11
knowledge and for its application10.
In this way, the study of language approaches the study of cognition (procedure on
acquisition, storing, transmission and elaboration of knowledge)11 within the cognitive science,
which axioms are formulated by V. Demiankov in the following way:
1. Its studies do not just observe actions (products), but their mental representations,
symbols, strategies and other unobserved processes and human abilities.
2. The proceeding of these processes depends on concrete content of actions an individual
does.
3. A culture forms an individual and an individual is always influenced by cultural factors12.
On the other hand, A. Wierzbicka has claimed, that “cultural differences into the process of
reasoning are based rather on the differences of situations, to which various cognitive procedures
are applied than on the existence of a definite procedure in one cultural group and its absence in
another”13.
The postulates of cognitive semantics can be formulated in the following way:
1. Postulate of the primacy of cognitive. The study of linguistic forms is certainly not full, if
cognitive categories are not taken into consideration, because the process of thinking is
practically inseparable from linguistic categories. Behind meaning of words there are
always associated with them cognitive structures: entities that can be described by means
of a specially designed language of knowledge representation (among elements of this
language there are frames, slots, scenarios, etc.). Cognitive structures define functioning of
any components of a linguistic system and aspects of its functioning: grammatical
categories, syntactic transformations, registers of speech, etc.
2. Postulate of irrelevance of contraposition of linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge.
Cognitive linguistics that considers the category of knowledge as the fundamental one,
rejects the contraposition of linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge and allows a
researcher to use different metalanguages in order to describe knowledge of different
types.
3. Postulate of the tendency to economize efforts. This principle allows to explain the reasons
of formation of such field of lexical system as phraseology. From the cognitive point of view,
the fixation of word-combinations as idioms into vocabulary turns out to be more economic
than engendering of these word-combinations in accordance with irregular rules. The
tendency to economize efforts often leads to “ritualization” of thinking processes and
linguistic behaviour of a person. Frames and prototypes are examples of ways of
economizing efforts. They lead practically any unique situation to a definite standard,
10
11
12
13
12
CHOMSKY, Languages and problems of knowledge, New York, The Managua lectures, 1988.
Victor DEMIANKOV, “Cognitive linguistics as a kind of interpretative approach”, Voprosy yazikoznaniya, 4, 1994.
ibidem
Anna WIERZBICKA, Language, culture, cognition, Moscow, Russkie slovari, 1996
wherein the previous experience of a person is realized.
4. Postulate of multiple realizations of cognitive structures into the language. This postulate
signifies that cognitive structures are not necessarily attached to one definite linguistic sign:
the same cognitive structure can be expressed by means of different meanings of the same
word (polysemy) or different words (synonymy).
5. Postulate of heterogeneity of the content plane of linguistic expression. There are assertive
part of a meaning, presupposition component, illocutionary component etc. that have
different degrees of explicitness into the content plane. Within the framework of cognitive
approach this feature of the content plane of a lexical unit is explained by the fact that
cognitive structures behind linguistic structures are nonlinear in principle and their language
expression needs special “wrapping”.
6. Postulate of plurality of semantic description. The existence into the content plane of
fundamentally different components demands the usage of different metalanguages and a
segmental description. Consequently, it is unlikely to find a single metalanguage, able to
explain the content plane in exhaustive way.
7. Postulate of value of irregular uses. A considerable part of lexical units can be used into
discourse with evident disregard of different language norms. It engenders effects of
language-games, stylistic discrepancies, deviation from standard rules of communication
etc. The application of cognitive methods allows to interpret non-standard usages not as
mistakes, but as specific operations on knowledge that lead, for instance, to the
redistribution of the information between implicit and explicit layers of the content plane, to
a deliberate complication of the communication process, to the fixation of attention on the
form of linguistic expression, etc14.
Many researchers maintain that universal (independent from a concrete language) and nonuniversal cognitive processes are used by a person for interpreting a text and perceiving the
reality15. There are variable cognitions, that differ from one language to another (knowledge of
syntax, phonological oppositions, categories, prototypes), and universal strategies of application of
this knowledge (cognition) for production and interpretation of concrete utterances.
A. Wierzbicka has proposed a similar thought in a different way: “...there is a number of
semantic primitives, coinciding with a number of semantic universals, and this plurality of
primitives-universals underlies the human communication and reasoning, while specific linguistic
configurations of these primitives reflect the variety of cultures”16.
The depository of specific knowledge is “attached” to the universal and final set of cognitive
strategies. On-line storage and attention are cognitive phenomena of the on-line type (they are
responsible for the real time usage of language). Off-line type phenomena (connected to the
14 Alexei BARANOV, Dmitri DOBROVOLSKY, “Postulates of cognitive semantics” Izvestiya RAN, 1, 1997.
15 DEMIANKOV, “Cognitive linguistics as a kind of interpretative approach”
16 WIERZBICKA, Languages, culture, cognition
13
meaning of language as the means of storing and regulating pieces of information) are long-term
memory, system of categories and categorization, structures of knowledge representation,
vocabulary, etc17.
1.1.2. Concept, its definition, features, structure
The study of concepts is important for the understanding of processes of categorization and
representation of knowledge. Recently, there has been an increasing amount of literature on this
topic, the new types of concepts (cultural, linguistic, political, etc.) have appeared, and the methods
of analysis and approaches have transformed from individual and intuitive into scientific, developed
in the framework of cognitive linguistics.
The concept is a composite unit of thought, that consists of a system of features. In the
process of thought a concept activates different features and layers. In the nutshell, three layers
can be defined:
1. Conceptual kernel is a sensational basic image, surrounded by a cognitive layer, which
reflects features of an object, perceived by senses.
2. More abstract layers that belong to the reflective sphere of human mind, represent a phase
of interpretation of existential features.
3. Interpretative field of a concept includes the evaluation of content, that interprets its
separate features and forms recommendations on the ways of behaviour and
comprehension of reality18.
At present there are many definitions of the concept, but what unifies them is that the
concept is understood as a complex, many-dimensional, sociological, psychological, cultural
formation. For instance, the definition of Y. Stepanov reflects psycholinguistic interpretation of the
term. In his opinion “concept is a “bunch” or a “clot” of notions, knowledge, associations, emotions,
that accompanies a word”19.
M. Pimenova defines the term as “a national mental image, a notion, which has a complex
structure of representation, realized by different linguistic means”20.
Concepts are units of mental lexicon, they exist into the human mind. Indeed, different
languages conceptualize the reality in different ways, moreover, different mental formations are
correlated with the same word in lexicon of different people21.
Linguists have concluded, that an important feature of the concept is the fact, that it bears a
“mark” of
17
18
19
20
21
14
culture.
S. Vorkachev has defined the concept
as “a unit of collective
Anton KIBRIK, “Cognitive researches on discourse”, Voprosy yazikoznaniya, 2, 1994.
Language and national consciousness. Issues of theory and methodology, Moscow, Nauka, 2002.
Yuri STEPANOV, Constants. Dictionary of Russian culture. Experience of research, Moscow, Shkola, 1997.
Maria PIMENOVA, Methods of conceptual researches, Kemerovo, Grafika, 2003.
Yulia KETESOVA, Tatiana MAKHANOVA, Conceptual foundations of culture psychology, Kurgan, Ethnos,
Culture, Text, 1999.
knowledge/perception that has linguistic realization and culturally specified character. The concept
belongs to the national language consciousness”22. Thus, the concept, being realized in the
language (sphere of representation of notions about culture) plays a part of an intermediary
between a culture and a person.
A. Zalevskaya has argued, that an individual concept and a concept as an invariant of a
definite society and culture must be differentiated. The researcher suggests, that what exists into
the mind of individuals is a concept, whereas the result of scientific researches is a construct23.
The origin of a concept is a question, which interests many researches. The basic arsenal
of concepts is formed on the early stages of ethnic consciousness, concurrently with the formation
of national lexicon. Some initial (or primary) concepts develop gradually into the rest concepts. In
the beginning of its formation concepts are entities, that can not be analyzed. The classification of
objects is built in compliance with their belonging to one or another pole of binary opposition. The
first symbolic classification was based on simple spatial orientation and sensory perception of the
man, which then were complete with time correlation, societal factors and mythological opposition
of sacred and temporal. After the completion of the primary naive conceptualization of the world,
every phenomena were perceived in terms of those concepts. And as concepts interpret the
meaning, later on they became the object of specification and modification, and as a part of a
system, they are influenced by different concepts24.
Based on aforesaid the concept 'roshia' is understood as a particular mental object, a
structure, a battery of features, actualized by the discourse of Asahi Shinbun.
1.1.3. Researches on concepts
At present, the researches do not only develop the theory of concept, but at the same time
study concrete concepts.
A. Wierzbicka approaches the study of concept in the view of a limited set of semantic
elements (universal, existing in every language), developed by means of this set it has become
possible to express the manifold of human ideas: concepts, inherent into lexical units of natural
languages, system of value, specific to a definite culture and even religious tenets. With this
universal metalanguage the researcher describes various concepts, such as “freedom”, “truth”,
“anger”, etc25.
N. Arutyunova has drawn attention to linguistic, logical and philosophical aspects of
concepts common for scientific theories and ordinary consciousness, such as “truth”, “memory”,
22
23
24
25
15
Sergey VORKACHEV, “Concept of happiness: conceptual and figurative components”, Izvestiya RAN, 6, 2001.
Anna ZALEVSKAYA, Text and its understanding, Tver, TGU, 2001.
Oleg KORNILOV, Linguistic world-view as a derivate of national mentality, Moscow: Nauka, 1999.
WIERZBICKA, Comparison of cultures through language and pragmatics, Moscow, languages of Slavic culture,
2001.
“charity”, “duty” and others. The concepts have been analyzed on the basis of modern and ancient
languages of different types of cultures26.
The material of research varies according to how a concept is analyzed in a language. A
concept can be expressed by set expressions, idioms, word combinations, structural and position
schemes of sentences (syntactic concepts), texts and corpus of texts27.
Among the method of conceptual analysis there are: analysis of the semanteme of a key
word, analysis of etymology of a key word, analysis of lexical compatibility, analysis of aphorisms,
experimental methods, comparative analysis of lexical fields of different languages. Usually,
different approaches are combined in order to create a complex method.
According to
Timoschenko all the variety of research methods can divided into two basic types.
1. “System-oriented approach” is a lexicographic description key words, which explicate a
concept and analysis of relationships between key word within definite context.
2. “Text-oriented approach” is a conceptual analysis of various texts. Within this approach
researchers solve several tasks:
1) delineation of lexical compatibility with a key word (which is in this case the name of a concept).
By continuous sampling methods. “This approach allow to find the fundamental traits of the
corresponding concept”28;
2) construction of frame models, metaphoric models, that represent a concept;
3) analysis of semantic development of key words.
In the present research the “text-orient approach” will be applied.
1.1.4. Linguistic consciousness
Modern linguists suggest, that cognitive world of a person can be studied by their actions,
kinds of activities a person accomplishes, most of which are accompanied by the use of a
language. They point out, that a language is not just “intertwined” with different kinds of activities,
but forms their base of speech and thought. “Language and consciousness are seen as two kinds
of human beings, related to each other, wherein the first one is the way of indicating the second
one. In other words, Language is a being that interprets, and consciousness is something that is
interpreted”29.
The results of linguistic experiments indicate that among the structures of consciousness
there are various types of knowledge: starting with singular ideas and finishing with complex
propositional structures, frames, scenarios, and the most substantial structures of the
26
27
28
29
16
Nina ARUTYUNOVA, Introduction to logical analysis of the language, Moscow, Yazyki russkoi kulturi, 1999
POPOVA, STERNIN, Linguistic consciousness and other types of consciousness, Voronezh, Istoki, 2003.
Ibidem.
Olga OVCHINNIKOVA, World-view in the framework of ethnopsychological research, Kurgan, Ethnos. Cultura.
Text.1999.
consciousness are the ones that are represented by means of linguistic signs.
As the language gives material form to the reality, linguistic consciousness is the aspect
“that is directly connected to the processes of engendering and perception of speech and that can
not be ignored by a linguist in their research and through the study of which we approach the
national mental linguistic complex, national conceptosphere”30.
1.1.5. Frame modeling method
C. Fillmore defines frame as “a structure of knowledge about a type object or stereotypical
situation. A frame is a declarative way to represent knowledge, formulated in terms of descriptions”.
“Some groups of words are connected with each other, because they are motivated, defined and
mutually characterized by specific unified constructions of knowledge and stereotypical experience,
for which the common term “frame” can be used 31. Semantics of frames admits the existence of
frames, that have only one exponent in the field of lexicon. “Frame is activated, when a person who
interprets, while trying to understand the meaning of a fragment of text, is able to attribute it an
interpretation and locate the content of that fragment into a known model, unrelated to the text”32.
Frame is the basis of information structuring and utterances that transmit the information
about the world.
Following the interpretation of A. Chudinov slot is understood as “an element of a situation,
that comprises some part of a frame, an aspect of frame's specialization”33.
Frames are characterized by complex nature: “Frame is a generalized model of culturally
defined organization of knowledge about a definite concept, which is formed by stereotypes of
linguistic consciousness. It can be presented as a “clot” of predictable valency connections
(slots)”34. Frames can be divided into static ones, that contain information about objects; and
dynamic frames, or scenarios, that contain information about object's activities. In many aspects,
thinking is the search of scenarios into one's memory and comparison with them, and not
generation of new ideas, because35.
A frame can be considered a matrix of slots, that represent aspects of reality's fragments.
This matrix contains an assessment of the fragment of reality, represented by the frame36.
V. Hayrullin has described characteristics of frames:
1. they are used for representation of various knowledge;
2. they usually consist of smaller structures, like subframes and slots;
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
17
Victoria KRASNYH, Ethnic psycholinguistics and cultural linguistics: lectures, Moscow, ITDGK “Gnozis”, 2002.
Charles FILLMORE, “Frames and semantics of understanding”, Novoe v zarubejnoi lingvistike, 23, 1988.
Ibidem.
Anatoly CHUDINOV, Political linguistics (common issues, metaphor), Ekaterinburg, EGU, 2003.
KRASNYH, Ethnic psycholinguistics and cultural linguistics
Elena KUBRYAKOVA, Desk dictionary of cognitive terms, Moscow, Russie slovari, 1996.
Ibidem.
3. they can unite into bigger units, that is a cluster of memory organization;
4. they are often a chain of slots, filled with obligatory or optional information;
5. they are designed for identification and interpretation of new information;
6. a frame can be a part of another frame or can be reflected in a part of another frame. And
the second frame will inherit features and relations of the first one37.
Frame modeling has gained ground within the framework of cognitive linguistics. For
instance, the method of frame modeling was used in PhD dissertations of O. Grishina and N.
Santsevich.
The research of O. Grishina is dedicated to adjacent topic: the structure of concept
“America” in the discourse of Russian journalistic texts. In the result of frame analysis, it was
discovered, that the concept “America” consists of 8 frames, and the primary segments are
“America is a state”, “America is a country”38.
N. Santsevich has
considered metaphoric models that describe Russian realities in
German journalistic texts and has concluded, that every metaphoric model consists of several
frames, that reflect typical knowledge and different areas of Russian life. Frames consist of slots,
aspects of specialization. For instance, “mechanic” metaphoric model includes the frame “stage of
production cycle”, that includes the slots “setup”, “functioning”, “demolition”39.
1.1.6. Metaphor and metaphoric modeling as one of the principle ways conceptualization
In the view of cognitive linguistics, the result of cognitive processes of the human mind is a
classification. The reality is classified in accordance with definite models. Metaphoric models, that
classify the reality, are understood as models of transition from structures of one semantic domain
to the corresponding structures of another domain 40, for instance “political activities is a war”,
wherein the mental sphere “war” plays a role of a base for the modeling of the mental sphere
“political activities”.
Metaphoric connections help overpass the discontinuity of lexical-semantic system and
sometimes to connect remote parts of semantic space. It is impossible to overestimate the
cognitive function of a metaphor: it serves as a bridge from a well-knows area to an unknown one,
from a comprehensible area to an incomprehensible.
“Metaphor is a way that provides the possibility to express new knowledge by means of its
transfer from one conceptual domain to another, which proves cognitive essence of metaphoric
transfer”41. It plays a unifying role: fills in missing units of the system and restores the lost ones. At
37
38
39
40
Vladimir HAIRULLIN, Translation and frames, Moscow, URSS, 2010.
GRISHINA, Frame model of the concept “America” in modern Russian language.
SANTSEVICH, Modeling of world-views on the basis of bilingual corpus of journalistic texts.
George LAKOFF, Mark JOHNSON, Metaphors We Live By, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2d edition,
2003.
41 PIMENOVA, Methods of conceptual researches.
18
the same time the domains are connected by analogy, the universal mechanism of thinking.
“Analogy is a cognitive mechanism, which sets a structural similarity between objects and reality” 42.
In other words, “similarity connects metaphoric designation and replaceable designation”43.
For this reason metaphor occupies central and not peripheral place into the cognitive model
of languages. In every metaphor there must be the source domain and the target domain. For
instance, if the verbs of motion are used as verbs of speech, then motion is the source domain for
the speech, which, on the other hand, is the target domain. The source domain is concrete and
anthropocentric: in order to form it the vocabulary, related to the man is widely used: human body
(chair arm, neck, etc.), whereabouts and motion (to be into violent temper, to fly into rage)44.
Traditionally metaphors belong to the sphere of individual irregular use of language, to the
sphere of speech, text, discourse. The usage of words by different people and, furthermore, the
existence of common material objects are the examples of correct use of words, their models,
which make it impossible to alternate generally accepted word meanings by individuals 45. In such
a way, “the sense of a word represents stable over the time and invariant content, whereas the
meaning of a word contains information, which can gradually change, can have variable
denotations and semantic nuances, that reflex individual features of a speaker. This difference
between sense and meaning is reflected by speech, utterance”46.
1.2. Discourse and features of journalistic texts
1.2.1. Discursive approach to the study of political journalistic texts
There are many definitions of texts that accentuate different sides and characteristics of text
as an object of linguistic research. I. Galperin has given the definition of the text, that accentuate its
written form and literary editing: “Text is a product of speech, fixed in the written form. The text is
realized as a written document, literary edited in accordance with the type of this document, and
consists of a title and a set of paragraphs, united by different types of lexical, logical and
grammatical connections; it is a work that has purposefulness and a pragmatic aim” 47. From this
point of view, the discourse as the opposite to the text, is sometimes defined as an oral form of the
text existence: “The discourse is often realized completely by means of oral speech, for instance,
in order to discuss a controversial issue”48.
Other linguists do not demarcate oral and written forms, in this sense a text can be called
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
19
Elena ZHOROVA, Problem of metaphorization as the mechanism of speech and thinking, Moscow, URSS, 2003.
Ibidem.
Elena RAKHILINA, Cognitive analysis on objective names: Semantics and compatibility, Moscow, Nauka, 2000.
Roman HARRE, “The second cognitive revolution”, Psychological journal, 2, 1996.
Ekaterina CHEMODANOVA, Meaning and sense of words into the context of culture, Moscow, Nauka, 2000.
Igor GALPERIN, Essays on English stylistics, Moscow, ILIY, 2003.
HARRE, “The second cognitive revolution”.
both oral speech, directed to a limited number of recipients, limited in time and in space or a text
fixed in the written form, that is not limited neither in time nor in space, directed to an endlessly
wider number of recipients. In this case the characteristics of coherence and integrity are put on
the forefront: “Text is organized plurality of sentences, united by different types of lexical, logical,
grammatical connections, able to transmit information, organized and directed in a certain
manner”49. Into the framework of this approach the discourse is understood as a coherent text
united with extra-linguistic (pragmatic, sociocultural, psychological and other) factors 50.
Within the framework of the discursive approach to text, the comprehension of a text
proceeds in conditions of interconnectedness between a reader and a writer, a speaker and a
listener. “The most important things are cultural and historical context, in which an author and a
reader exist”51. In any case both the text and the discourse are opposed to the language, which is
traditionally understood as a system, virtual totality of all speech realizations of a sign.
The advantages of the discursive approach consist in the fact that it takes into
consideration background knowledge of a recipient. “The recipient, according to the level of the
proper development and knowledge, perceiving a text, analyzes it, finds new information in it and
synthesizes it, “includes” into the proper system of ideas about a given object”52.
In this way, “every component that is present into the consciousness of a speaker and a
listener (or a writer and a reader) and can impact on the engendering and perception of speech:
other texts, whose content is taken into consideration by an author and an addressee of a given
text, political views of an author and his goals when a text is being created, political situation, in
which a text was created and “lives” its life” must be included into the study of political discourse53.
T. van Dijk and W. Kinch have noticed, that cognitive model which is constructed into the
mind of recipients according to the interpretation of discourse, “is supposed to reflect the fact that a
coherent text and accordingly the process of its understanding are realized into a social context”54.
Consequently, the discourse can be defined as a coherent text united with extra-linguistic
factors55. The study of ideologically labeled political texts needs at the same time “the study of the
degree of influence on a given text and on its perception by addressee of various linguistic,
cultural, social, economic, political, national and other factors”56.
1.2.2. Properties of the language of mass media, their organization and functions
A newspaper article is considered to be constructed according to the presence or absence
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
20
Zinaida TURAEVA, Linguistics of text (Text: structure and semantics), Moscow, Prosveschenie, 1986.
Valentina YARTSEVA, Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary, Moscow, Soviet encyclopedia, 1990.
Maria KOMAROVA, Issue of text interpretation, Moscow, Prosveschenie, 1997.
Ibidem.
CHUDINOV, Political linguistics (common issues, metaphor).
DIJK, Walter KITNSCH, Strategies of discourse comprehension, New York, Academic Press, 1983.
YARTSEVA, Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary.
CHUDINOV, Political linguistics (common issues, metaphor).
of several basic factors. The recipient of a report must get clear answers to the following questions:
“who?” did or said “what?” “where?” and “when?”. If an article is not just a report, it must contain
the answer to a question “why?”.
A journalistic article is usually created according to the principle “by deduction”, from
general to specific. Unlike literary works an article or a TV report sets the core information in the
beginning of a message, and then comments or explains it. It gives the possibility to a recipient to
omit the following parts of a message, without losing the core information57.
There are several common characteristics of printed mass media and principles of
journalistic material organization. First of all, publicity, accessibility and general validity. These
features demand the standardization of the language. “A newspaper is devoid of poetic function
and designed for neutral linguistic environment” (Language and style of mass media and
propaganda 1980). For this reason it is important to use set phrases, idioms within a text of a
newspaper.
A. Fesyun has enumerated the specific features of Japanese journalistic texts:
1. The use of characters:
a) there are few seldom used place-names and individual names (otherwise the reading can be
given in kana);
b) a character not included into 常用漢字表 jōyōkanjihyō (regular-use characters list) is usually
substituted with one included into the list: 諒解 ryōkai　→ 了解 ryōkai ;
c) some characters are substituted with kana: 挨拶 aisatsu　→ あいさつ 挨拶;
d) a part of a compound can be substituted with kana: 円錐形 ensuikei　→ 円すい形 ensuikei.
2. An increased number of shortenings. Auxiliary words, subjects and predicates can be
omitted: 「 前 向 き に 検 討 す る 」 と 首 相 が 述 べ た 。 maemuki ni kentō suru to shushō ga
nobeta → 「前向きに検討」と首相 maemuki ni kentō to shushō. Sometimes it makes the
reading and perception more difficult. For this reason it is important to be well informed
about current event and hence have the ability to understand the meanings from the
context.
3. The tendency to avoid “heavy” and complex words: いまだ未完成 imada mikansei　→　未
完成 mikansei, 従来から jūrai kara　→ 従来 jūrai.
4. The usage of informal words, that can substitute formal or obsolete expressions: 主たる改
正点 omotaru kaiseiten　→ 主な改正点 omona kaiseiten58.
Addressees of an act of mass communication are not homogeneous, and this fact
conditions on the heterogeneity of a newspaper style. Indeed, the language of journalism interacts
57 Andrey FESYUN, Language of Japanese mass media, Moscow, VSE, 2013.
58 Ibidem.
21
with other registers. The combination of formal and informal registers is typical of newspapers.
The regularity of double addressee can be found in several types of mass media. For
instance, a report dedicated to the creation of 114 th element of the periodic table is intended mostly
for scientists: chemists and physicists. At the same time, the news are perceived by all people, who
read a newspaper or a magazine, that published it or watch TV news (in this case the second
addressee is not a formally pronounced circle of recipients, to whom the intention of a speaker is
applied)59.
Another feature of the language of mass media is connected to functions that they are
supposed to carry out:
a) to inform, to produce an utterance;
b) to advocate something and carry on agitation.
Factual and evaluative utterances can be identified on the basis of this functions. A fact is
not an event in itself, but a comment about an event, that reflects it in objective and more or less
complete manner. The main requisite of a factual utterance is the verity: it must reflect an event as
it actually took place and be verifiable60.
Evaluative utterances do not reflect the reality, but subjective opinions about it. “All facts
and events, described into a report must be reflected without any kind of favouritism”61.
The feature “politicization” is connected with functions of agitation and propaganda of mass
media. Being the main means of reaction on modern social and political events, mass media are
also means of regulation, control and manipulation of political and social life in a country. A
magazine or a newspaper have the power to exert influence upon recipients, persuade them to
change their positions and act in a definite way. One of the efficient ways of persuasion is a direct
or indirect expression of an assessment. Researchers of mass media language have argued, that
“bipolarity of assessment remains clear into texts of mass media. The evaluation of any journalistic
work has a strong propensity for positive or negative side”62.
Positive evaluation of a fact, event, phenomenon attributes to a given phenomenon
characteristics of a thing of the “Self” world: pattern of a proper culture are considered normal,
ideal, right. A negatively evaluated phenomenon is described as a thing of an “Other” world. In this
way, a positively evaluated phenomenon is described as “self, proper” and thus accepted as “due”;
negatively evaluated “other, alien” phenomenon is usually rejected. Indeed, according to the
pyramid of A. Maslow the desire for safety makes people prefer known objects to unknown ones.
The evaluation is often hidden into a metaphor. At present, there have been conducted
many researches on the usage of a metaphor into journalistic texts. A newspaper metaphor has the
following properties: it is imaginative and emotive, some metaphors are able to create emotional
59
60
61
62
22
Tatiana VINOKUR, Speaker and listener. Moscow, Nauka, 1993.
Elena KARA-MURZA, My tongue is the enemy of mine, Moscow, Vestnik MGU, 1998.
Ibidem.
Nadejda MARTYNENKO, Evaluation into the journalistic text. Saratov, SGU Press, 2003.
standards and stamps, finally, a journalistic metaphor is considered “from the view-point of
informative intensity of linguistic signs code” and it is interpreted as “one of the most important
means of the reduction of superfluity or “condensation” of meaning”63.
Consequently, the language of mass media is characterized by the presence of metaphors,
“usage of symbols and signs, tangible presence of mental stereotypes” 64, that are the base of
successful realization of journalistic communicative intention. “Into the modern world the mass
media play a part of a “factory”, that produces mental stereotypes and uses them in order to mould
public opinion. On one hand, a stereotype can be called a kind of psychological barrier, “safety net”
into the human mind, which prevents persons from the perception of one or another fact. On the
other hand, mass media can use a stereotype (frequently repeated symbol) in order to exert
influence upon audience”65.
1.3. Researches on stereotypes about Russia and perception of Russia in other countries
1.3.1.Role of stereotype and “friend or foe” category in the perception of a different culture
Stereotype is defined as a “schematic, standardized image of conception about a social
phenomenon or an object, usually emotionally marked and stable. It expresses an attitude of a
person towards a phenomenon, formed on the basis of social conditions or past experience” 66.
Despite its schematic and generalized character, stereotypical notions about other nations and
cultures prepare a person for the meeting with other cultures, reduce cultural shock. “Stereotypes
allow a person to form an opinion about something, go beyond their narrow social, geographical
and political world”67.
Autostereotypes are ideas of people about themselves, perceived by them as a norm, that
should be followed. Heterostereotypes are ideas of people about a different nation, they have a
more critical character, as cultural norms of other nations are considered to be deviation from
standard. The assessment of such judgments will be positive or negative (often negative in view of
negative attitude towards priorities of other cultures), but the starting point will always be in
standards of a proper culture.
Schematically the mechanism of stereotype's action can be shown in the following way: every person
being a member of a definite group at the same time feels alien in different groups. Internal rules of a
group is the peace for its members and the war for people, who belong to another group. Within a
group friendship, loyalty, tolerance and mutual respect are cultivated, while feelings cultivated towards
another group are jealousy, distrust and hostility. The loyalty towards a proper group and the hostility
63
64
65
66
67
23
Yulia FEDENEVA, “Political metaphor: evolution of pragmatics” Bulletin of Ural linguistic society, Volume 4, 2000
Ibidem.
GRISHINA, Frame model of the concept “America” in modern Russian language.
Svetlana TER-MINASOVA, Language and intercultural communication, Moscow, Slovo, 2000.
Ibidem.
towards an alien group are the main elements into the formation of a stereotype 68.
In this way, the existence of stereotypes is connected to self-identification of members of an
ethnic group as “friends” on the basis of similarities and separation of others as “outsiders” on the
basis of differences of their ethnic group. “There is probably no society without division of people
into “We” and “They”. It is underlain by multifarious differences, from race and ethnic group to
religion and social status, etc. On one hand, people tend to opt for already known things and reject
unknown ones; on the other hand, distant and unknown things are attractive as something new
and exotic. The dialectics of interrelation between “Us” and “Them” is reflected by formation and
perpetuation of stereotypes...”69.
L. Gumilev supposed, that ethnic stereotypes are a form of realization of a given ethnic group's
rhythm, that they are not available for introspection of a “naive” member of one ethnic group or another
and are the part of behaviour and collective unconscious. It can be assumed, that this kind of
stereotypes underlie the formation of cultural stereotypes, that are available in a sense for introspection
and can become facts of consciousness (individual or societal)” 70.
Cultural stereotype describes “common features of the world-view that members of the
same ethnic group have71.
Geophysical, economic, historical, cultural and linguistic factors, whose union creates the
conception of “mentality” of a society, play a definite part into formation of stereotypes. From this point
of view societies differ not in the presence or absence of stereotypes, but in their system as a whole... It
can explain the age-old tradition to oppose the West and the East, technology oriented and traditional
cultures, worlds of material and spiritual values 72.
Thus, it can be inferred, that “notions about the West and the East are not geographically
defined, they are not connected to government, territories or ethnicity. They are fundamentally
opposite ways of existence of the man into the world and opposite type of the world-view”73.
The beginnings of the category “friend or foe” (“we – they”) trace their roots into ancient
times and are connected to the fact that a person, being a member of various social groups and
communities (classes, male/female and age, professional, religious, political and ethnic groups),
opposes oneself and members of a proper group to other people, that represent alien groups. At
the same time, the common process of differentiation and identification takes place, which leads to
formation of social identity, that is awareness of being a member of a group and evaluative attitude
to this belonging74.
Often the realization of the proper identity takes the form of opposition “self – other”, “we –
68
69
70
71
72
Yulia DENISOVA, Advocating stereotype, Moscow, URSS, 1997.
Maria YELENEVSKAYA, Larisa FIALKOVA, Russian street in the Jewish country, Moscow, RAN, 2005.
Natalia UFIMTSEVA, Russians. Another experience of self-knowledge, Moscow, Slovo, 1996.
Ibidem.
Svetlana BRALINA, Stereotypes into conceptosphere of folklore. World of men and world of languages, Kemerovo,
IPK “Grafika”, 2003.
73 Ibidem.
74 Tatiana GRUSHEVITSKAYA, Victor POPKOV, Andrey SADOKHIN. Introduction to intercultural communication,
Moscow, Yuniti-Dana, 2003.
24
they”. For instance, in a situation of divergence of cultures on some cultural issues, the notion of
“extraneous” or “alien” is getting formed. To present day, no scientific definition of this phenomenon
was elaborated. This category is understood on the common level, that is by means of delineation
and description of the most typical features of this term. In the framework of this approach the word
“alien” has several meanings:
1. alien is foreign, distant, being beyond borders of a proper culture;
2. alien is strange, unusual, opposite to usual and habitual space;
3. alien is unknown, unfamiliar and difficult;
4. alien is supernatural, almighty, something much more powerful that a person;
5. alien is sinister and life-threatening75.
The opposite notion of “self, proper” implies a set of objects and phenomena of the world,
perceived by a person as familiar, habitual, self-evident. As a rule, both sides take ethnocentric
position and attribute to others stupidity, ignorance and malicious intent 76. “In this way, the
opposition “Self – Other” is considered primary in respect of value oppositions”77.
The “self” culture is put in the centre of the world and consider itself as a hallmark of
everything. Ethnocentrism means, that values of other cultures are examined and evaluated in the
view of the proper culture, which becomes a standard of norm and perfection, it is a close, familiar
and understandable world, that surrounds every single member of a community on the every-day
basis. “There is only one common real world. The ideal world is variable, and it disintegrates into
many separate worlds, even if one of them contain the manifold of canons of beauty” 78. During a
collision or a contact with another culture, processes of identification/differentiation come into
being. They are accompanied by comparisons that allow to “see clearer and define the variety of
deviation from a desirable standard”79.
1.3.2. Japan-Russia relations: historical aspects
In the process of expansion of its territory, which meant for Russia the acquisition of status
of a great Eurasian country, it always tried to establish control on seacoasts. In this respect, the
arrival of Russians to the Pacific Ocean in XVII century and the creation of bases on the space of
vast territory from the Chukchi Peninsula to Vladivostok was the natural result of colonization of
Eastern Siberia and the Far East.
In Russia the first paper that mentioned Japan appeared with a translation of an edition of
“Atlas” prepared by a Flemmish scientist G. Merkator in 1637.
75 Ibidem.
76 Ibidem.
77 SANTSEVICH, Modeling of world-views on the basis of bilingual corpus of journalistic texts.
78 ARUTYUNOVA, Introduction to logical analysis of the language.
79 Ibidem.
25
A bit later, the instructions given to a Russian ambassador Nicolae Milescu, delegated to
China, included brief characteristics of Japan and its inhabitants: “Japan is a bis island, that lies in
700 verstas80 to the East from China. Rich in gold, silver and other treasures... Japanese customs
and characters are similar to Chinese ones, the Japanese themselves are violent people. They put
to death many Portuguese and Spanish Jesuits” 81. The last fact was connected with the beginning
of Japan's self-isolation in the XVII century. It did not allow to “discover” this country to two Russian
missions sequentially: of E. Laksman in 1792 and N. Rezanov in 1803.
Some negative part in the impossibility to establish relations with Japan played the Dutch.
The only Europeans who could carry on trade with the Japanese in the XVII century, they
apparently did not want to compete with other Europeans on the territory of Eastern Asia. At the
same time, two cases of firing and seizure by Russian public vessels of Japanese settlements on
the seacoasts of Southern Sakhalin and Kuril Islands resulted in another failure to establish official
relations
with
the
Japanese82.
The real breakthrough in Russian attempts to enter into relations with the Eastern
neighbour was rendered possible only in the midst of the XIX century. It was defined by the
increasing strategic value of the Pacific region for the Russian empire with relation to the
preparation for the Crimean War and by the beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia, which
caused migration of Russian rural population from the European part of the country not only to
rapidly growing cities but also on the Eastern outskirts of Russia. In May, 1852 the Special
Committee was created in order to discuss Russian policies in the Far East and to prepare the next
expedition to the Japanese cost. At that time it was considered that the border between Japan and
Russia must be the island Urup83.
In February, 1855 the Treaty of Shimoda was signed. It meant mutual acknowledgment of
Russian and Japanese public interests not only in the sphere of politics and but also in the
economic sphere. The border between two countries lied between islands Urup and Iturup. In 1858
the first Russian consulate was opened in Hakodate84.
At that time the notions about Russia in Japan were grouped into three parts: “teacher”,
“enemy” and “fellow sufferer”85.
The image of Russia as a “teacher” was associated with projects of reforms, prepared by
the Japanese officials in the second half of the XVIII century, which modeled on reorganization of
Russia, conducted by Peter the Great. But soon after the Meiji restoration Russia was excluded
from the list of countries that Japan tried to imitate. In 1869 a governmental journal Meiji Genkan
published a classification of countries of the world, dividing them into five groups: “civilized” - Great
80
81
82
83
84
85
26
obsolete Russian unit of measurement, equal to 1.067 km
Lev KUTAKOV, Russia and Japan, Moscow, Prosveschenie, 1988.
Ibidem.
Konstantin SARKISOV, Konstantin CHEREVKO, Izvestiya, 4 October 1991.
KUTAKOV, Russia and Japan
Ibidem.
Britain, France, Netherlands, USA, Germany, Sweden; “enlightened” - Russia, Italy, Spain,
Portugal; “half-enlightened” - China, India, Turkey, Persia; “uncivilized” - nomadic people of Central
Asia and North Africa; “barbarians” - American Indians, primitive tribes of Africa, Aborigines of
Australia and Oceania86. Consequently, the Japanese authorities aimed at entering into relations
(particularly, military and technical) with developed “civilized” countries.
The image of Russia as an “enemy” among Japanese bureaucrats was connected with the
widespread notion of Russia as a threat, because it played a part of a barrier on the way of the
Japanese advancement in Asia87.
Russia was seen as for a “fellow sufferer” by Japanese intellectuals who studied works of
Russian philosophers, mostly novels of L. Tolstoy, which found many followers in Japan 88. “Fellow
sufferer” meant for them the closeness of problems, which both empires set themselves as a goal:
industrialization of economics and modernization of social organization in order to overtake
developed and “civilized” countries of Europe and the USA.
Some revival into quite a sluggish process of the bilateral contacts development was
brought about by the signature the Treaty of Saint-Petersburg in 1875. Much as Russia sold Alaska
and all its territories in the North America in 1867 to Washington, it gave up all Kuril Island to
Tokyo, and in return got the full control over Sakhalin, strategically and economically important for
Japan on the threshold of the continent89.
Quick activation of the Far East policies of both empires in the end of XIX – beginning of XX
led finally to series of wars and armed conflicts of different scales: the Russo-Japanese war in
1904-1905, the interventions of the Japanese army in 1918-1922, the Battles of Lake Khasan and
Khalhin Gol in 1938-1939, and, finally, the last period of the World War II in august 1945.
Several “sore” points and tendencies of evolution of Japan-Russia relationships can be
singled out in the course of the XX century:
First of all, it is important to take into consideration serious economic contradictions that the
two countries shared in the course of decades. The attempts of Russian merchants and
industrialists to strengthen themselves in Manchuria and Korea caused protests of business circles
in Japan. On the other hand, the intention of economic leaders of the country pour in mineral
resources to set control over the nearest continental parts was perceived by Russia and later by
the USSR as a challenge to its advancement to non-freezing ports and East Asian markets.
In political sphere in the course of the first half of XX century, the periods of irreconcilable
hostility took turns with chronological runs of neutral and even allied relationships, wherein the
rhythm of their alternation to a great extent depended on concrete steps of the thirds parties: Great
Britain, Germany, USA, China. For instance, Russia-Japan rapprochement on the eve of the World
86
87
88
89
27
Vladimir KOZHEVNIKOV, Japan-Russia relations in XVIII-XIX centuries, Vladivostok, 1997
KUTAKOV, Russia and Japan
Ibidem.
KOZHEVNIKOV, Japan-Russia relations in XVIII-XIX centuries
War I and the signature of the treaty of alliance in July, 1916 was caused by the reinforcement of
the American entry into Eastern Asia and the presence of the common for both empires enemy,
that is Germany.
Similarly, the breach (by the USSR) of Soviet-Japanese neutrality pact, signed in April,
1941 and the beginning of military operations in August, 1945 was caused, apart from revanchist
intentions of the Kremlin authorities, by active actions of the USA directed to the involvement of
Moscow into the open armed conflict with Japan. Six years after the end of the war, in SanFransisco the US diplomacy tried to prevent the slightest possibility of the diplomatic adjustment of
Soviet-Japanese relationships, where mutual interests of both countries would be taken into
consideration. In fact, the preservation of contradictions between Moscow and Tokyo was the core
element
of
the
foreign
policy
of
Washington
in
Eastern
Asia
at
that
time 90.
Nonetheless, the remarkable share of the responsibility for the absence of good-neighbour
relationships must have been taken by nationalistic circles of both countries. In 1920s-1930s, when
Japan had foreign policy initiative in the Far East, the bureaucrats of the Japanese Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, wrote a cascade of plans of organization and massive aggression against the
USSR91. Only the defeat in 1929 of the Chinese Army in the Chinese Eastern Railway area made
Japanese authorities postpone the realization of the plans against the USSR.
At the same time, the fact of denouncement by I. Stalin of the Neutrality Pact and actions of
Russian authorities in august 1945 were perceived (and are still perceived) by the Japanese
separately from the context of the Pacific War. In Japan they do not forget about mass plundering
of the Japanese population in Manchuria, Southern Sakhalin and Kuril Islands committed by the
Soviet Army in the course of military operations; the use of more than 600 thousand Japanese
prisoners of war in laborious works until 195692. It is also not a secret, that I. Stalin had an
intention to occupy the island of Hokkaido and only under the pressure of the Americans he left his
design. According to today's Japanese historians, their “homeland fell a victim to the Soviet
aggression”, and this situation engendered a difficult territorial issue of Kuril Islands93.
In February 1946 South Kuril Islands became part of the USSR. In 1947-1949 17 thousand
Japanese lived previously in “Northern Territories”, were evicted by the Soviet administration.
(“Northern territories” of Japan (edition of the Embassy of Japan in Russia)94.
In the field of cultural contacts and the evolution of notions about each other the first half of
XX century must be considered “dark” period of the story of Japan-Russia relationships. Together
with real facts of hostility, a substantial part played the official propaganda of both countries. In
Japan in USSR was presented as a barbarian, aggressive country, whose government waits for an
90 Boris SLAVINSKY, “Territorial dispute in Japan-Russia relations”, in Russia – Japan on the edge of XXI century,
1999
91 KUTAKOV, Russia and Japan
92 Ibidem.
93 SARKISOV,CHEREVKO, Izvestiya, 4 October 1991.
94 Ibidem.
28
opportunity to take revenge for the catastrophe of 1904-1905, but this time under the slogan
“world revolution”.
The shock, experienced by the public consciousness of Japan after the catastrophe of
1945, caused not only by the military defeat, but also by the occupation of its territories and nuclear
bombardments in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, increased the critical perception of Russia by the
Japanese population. This situation remained unchanged during the whole period of the “cold war”.
The attempts of the Soviet Minister for Foreign Affairs A. Gromyko to sign the treaty of peace with
the prime-minister Sato E. in 1972 on terms of the return of Shikotan and Habomai failed.
According to the public opinion polls of the 50th-80th years of XX century, the USSR had
been taking the first place in the list of countries, that constituted a menace to the security of
Japan. 70-80% of respondents, independently of sex, age, level of education and profession gave
this answer. According to their opinion, national traits of the Russians were cruelty, indifference,
slyness and reserved character95.
The “age” of M. Gorbachev and “early” B. Yeltsin did not manage to change the character of
the new democratic Russia in Japan. In 1994 44.3% of the inquired Japanese described Russia as
the most unloved countries (Russia took the second place after North Korea) 96. Researchers from
both sides have noted the vitality and resistance of negative stereotypes about Russia in Japan.
The Japanese sense of guilt towards its Eastern neighbours for the outbreak of the Pacific war did
not extend to Russia97.
On the eve of the Japanese visit of M. Gorbachev on 16-18 April 1991 the rumours about
the possibility of “historical deal” between Russia and Japan spread in Russia: in exchange for the
“Northern territories” the Japanese allegedly offered M. Gorbachev 200 billion dollars 98. But the
miracle did not happen. Moreover, later assertive attempts of the Japanese diplomacy to exploit
the complicated political and economic situation, caused by the collapse of the USSR, in order to
push B. Yeltsin in the field of this problem, caused disappointment and discontent of Russia, which
was reflected in an abrupt cancellation of the next visit in Japan of Russian President in 1992
without any feasible explanation. At that time the five-stage plan of adjustment of the Kuril Islands
dispute, elaborated by the Russia, postponed indefinitely the return of the islands after the
signature of the peace treaty. For this reason the Japanese authorities were forced to be satisfied
with the sole fact of the recognition by Russia of the territorial issue99.
The new efforts directed to the settlement of the “Northern territories” dispute were made by
B. Yeltsin and the prime-minister Hashimoto R. during their unofficial meetings in 1997-1998. In
accordance with the so called “plan of Yeltsin – Hashimoto” (November, 1997), it was supposed to
95
96
97
98
99
29
Vladimir KOZHEVNIKOV, Russia-Japan relations at present stage. Problems and solutions. Vladivostok, 1997.
Ibidem.
Dmitry PETROV, “Russia and Japan, stereotypes of perception”, Znakomtes' – Yaponia, 7, 1995
Izvestiya, 2 February 1991
KOZHEVNIKOV, Russia-Japan relations at present stage.
create possibilities for the signature of the peace treaty by 2000 100. It seemed that Russia and
Japan were at the last stage of the lingering peaceful settlement. But Russian financial crisis of
August 1998, abrupt aggravation of economic situation in Japan in 1999-2000, the disease of B.
Yeltsin in the end of his government and the resistance of conservative nationalistic circles of both
countries
interrupted
the
period
of
positive
changes
into
the
relations.
The coming to power of V. Putin in 2000 did not bring about any cardinal changes in the
nature of Japan-Russia relationships. But his name in Japan was associated with definite hopes,
which were reflected in the meeting of Prime-Minister Mori E. with the President of Russia in April
2000.
In the beginning of XXI century the major problems, which solution touched directly the
interests of both states, are strengthening of China and preservation of tension in the Korean
Peninsula. The first issue was connected with the intention of Japan and Russia to create military
strategic counterbalance to China in Asian Pacific region. The second issue was defined by the
intentions of the two countries to guarantee the Korean Peninsula the denuclearized status by
pushing the North Korean authorities on the way of democratic reforms. The new challenges , such
as terrorism, drug trafficking and the ethnic minorities rights protection also create the base for the
rapprochement of the two countries positions101.
Despite the mutual interest in the area of trade and economical activities, culture and
science, the territorial dispute is still considered to be defining in the development of bilateral
relationships. In November 2010 the head of the state of that time D. Medvedev visited Kuril
Islands. The visit was subjected to the pointed criticism from the side of Japanese government.
The Japanese Prime-Minister Kan N. expressed discontent with the actions of D. Medvedev102.
In 2012, for the first time since 2002 Prime-Minister Abe S. came to Russia with the official
visit. Though among proposed for discussions issues were the reduction of prices of gas, the
construction of an LNG complex on the territory of Japan, the increase in commodity circulation,
the main question remained the same: the destiny of four Southern Kurile Islands103.
It can be supposed that the main reason of stagnation in the development of relationships
between the two countries is the absence of the “critical mass” of mutual interest that could be
opposed to the historical memory of Japan, distrust towards Russia and unsettled territorial
dispute.
1.3.3. “East - West” dichotomy in the construction of Russian self-identification
100Ibidem.
101Mikhail TITARENKO, “Eurasianism: Japan-Russia and China-Russia relations”, Problemi Dalnego Vostoka, 1,
2002.
102 Golos Ameriki, 2 November 2010
103Alexey VOLODIN, Japan and Russia, the peace enforcement (http://topwar.ru/)
30
When Russian cultural self-identification and identification of Russia is examined by
different countries, there is always the need to take into consideration several aspect of Russian
history and geography. Thus, the fundamental means of definition of Russian specific character is
the definition of cultural and historical differences between Europe and Asia, and the inference, that
Russia is dissimilar to both of them. It has been argued that the attitude of Russia towards cultural
and genetic differences between the two regions defines particularities of the country.
Many of great civilizations came into being during the beginnings of world religions and
philosophies (I century b. C.); “Western, Near-Eastern, Arab, Indian and Chinese civilizations were
internally oriented to a transformation into a world civilization, by their design they are all
universal”104. “Western civilization took a qualitative leap into its development, and therefore they
gained such dynamic character that could make the object of its activities the whole planet, having
set the system of connections throughout the Earth. In this sense, Western civilization proved to be
the most universal one”105.
But Russia has always been finding its own way of development.
It has been argued106 that cultural dimension “collectivism – individualism” coincides with
“East – West” dichotomy. The most typical specimen of individualist cultures are English and North
American cultures, typical collectivist cultures are countries of Asia and South America 107. Among
the values of Russian culture, which are traditionally ascribed to the influence of Eastern countries
there are: communal way of life, sobornost108, collectivism, strong dependency of an individual on a
collective, patience, cruelty, sense of solidarity.
Increasingly many researchers of Russian culture and mentality have noticed that one of
many characteristics of Russian government and Russian ethnic group is the tendency to the
authoritarian style of governance, “pronounced tradition of despotism”. In 1885 American president
A. Lincoln wrote in his private letter: “I would prefer to immigrate to a country, where they do not
pretend to love freedom and independence, for instance, Russia, where we can see the despotism
in its pure form, not corrupt by hypocrisy” 109. The beginnings of despotism can be found in the
history of a state, and an important part of the formation of this Russian tendency is often attributed
to the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus''110. The influence of autocracy and totalitarianism moulded
such a trait as admiration of authority, whereas national isolation from Western countries for a long
time can explain the absence of democratic traditions in Russia.
According to A. Garin, the idea of principle starting equality of all people could not be
104 Yakov SHEMYAKIN, Europe and Latin America. Interaction of civilizations in the context of world history,
Moscow, Nauka, 2001.
105 Ibidem.
106 Geert HOFSTEDE, Culture’s Consequence, Thousand Oaks, 2001
107 Tatiana BOBKOVA, Features of communicative behaviour of members of different linguistic communities,
Moscow, Slovo, 2004.
108 spiritual community of many people living together. Dictionary of the Russian language “Ozhegov”
109 GRUSHEVITSKAYA, POPKOV, SADOKHIN. Introduction to intercultural communication.
110 East Slavic state in Europe from the late IX to the mid-XIII century.
31
developed in Russia into real democracy. “In Russia there was no Thomas Aquinas, who
synthesized Aristotle and Roman law, and in that way made them part and parcel of the Western
culture. [...] One of typical traits of Russian life, its absolute symbol is lack of knowledge of every
single citizen of basic laws of the government”111.
Alexander Levintov has connected Russian authoritarianism with the fear of foreign,
extraneous things. During the formation of Russia Russian governors had always been foreign
princes, aliens, who came to Russia with the war. They used to come during a period of war to
different cities with already formed and elaborated democratic structures of self-government, and in
order to extend their princedom, they used to start intestine strifes with their own brothers, who
were governing in neighbour cities. Consequently, the authoritarian style of governance was
formed in the country, created by intestine strifes: if there was no war, then there was no
government. Russian government meant the struggle for supremacy and prestige, it was bellicose.
Nowadays modern governors probably do not feel anymore to be always oriented on war: the idea
of war has become intrinsic to the power, to the public interest. It means might and overcoming of
the world resistance. Russian government is xenophobic, even though in itself, when related to its
own population it is often alien.
Ancient princes and tsars were Ruric dynasty, descendants of the Norman 112, and they were
always seen as enemies of the population, that they governed. The Russians felt xenophobia
towards them, as they considered their government as other aliens who had come to infringe on
their rights, freedom and justice113.
In this way the myth of power (which becomes equal to the power of a “foe” over a “fiend”,
is connected to the state of war and occupies a position of opposition to the population) becomes
one of absolute symbols that define specific character of Russian culture114. Russian society is
considered typically conflict, not prone to compromises, that are understood as betrayal and
cowardice115.
Contentiousness of the modern Russian society has been noted by historians and political
scientists. For instance, K. Turnaev has written that “contentiousness of the modern Russian
society has been increased to a great extent by extremely painful, and for a part of the society
forcible and excessively quick transformation of the country. For the past few years the Russians
found themselves in an absolutely different geopolitical and governmental space, into a different
economic and political system”116.
111 Alexander GARIN, «The Cultural Roots of the Western Democracy in Comparison with the Russian
Development», Rossia I Zapad: dialog kultur, 8, 2000.
112 Varagians, this name gave birth to the Russian word “враг – vrag”, which means enemy
113 Alexey LEVINTOV, From the USA to Russia, Moscow, Poligrafix, 2000.
114 Ibidem.
115 Ibidem.
116 Konstantin TURNAEV, Political conflicts in the transforming Russian society, Kemerovo, KGU, 2003.
32
1.3.4. Russian autostereotypes and self-identification
A collective image of the Russian nation can not be easily created. Autostereotypes are
reflection of myths of people about themselves and on a basis of these notions there is a
historically formed perception of the Russian nation.
The global process of interaction of different cultures, civilizations, which can be observed
at present, leads to the dialogue between them and to their unification. The study of ethnic
autostereotypes gives an estimate of how a nation is seen from inside and which facets of a proper
culture it projects to the outer world, contributing to the formation of its own image by other nations.
The data acquired by the Institute of sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences is of
interest with relation to the previous paragraph (“East-West” dichotomy in the formation of Russian
self-identification). The report of the Institute replies to a question “How modern Russian population
defines itself? To which countries of the world (representing the “East” and the “West”) Russia is
closer in the fields of culture, economics and national character?”117
In 1990s the majority of Russians (50%-51%) identified themselves with the “West” only in
the field of culture. Economics of “wild” capitalism of that period seemed to be absolutely “Asian” or
in the best of the hypotheses it was a kind of “mixture”, “Eurasian” phenomenon. As for the national
character, in this field the Russians did not name themselves neither Europeans (only 30% of
respondents gave this answer), nor Asians (less than 12% replied that Russians were similar to the
Chinese, Japanese or Indians). In Russian understanding of that period the Russians were
“Eurasians”, the mixture of national traits of both parts of the continent. In spite of some
fluctuations of values of corresponding indexes, overall, the picture remained the same till 2007.
However, in 2007 the situation started to change in quite a paradoxical way. The indexes
that characterized the Russian identity with relation to its attitude towards the “West” or the “East”
moved in the opposite direction.
Data that concerns the national Russian character are represented in the following way:
while from 1998 to 2004 more than a half of respondents did not ascribe Russians as Europeans
or Asians, in 2007 the situation changed dramatically: most part of replies (around 42%) was
concentrated around “European nature” of Russia. Probably, it can be explained by the fact that,
differently from the period of research of the proper self-identity and self-assertion, which
characteristic trait is denial, in 2007 it became easier to admit some “Western” traits without any
fear to lose the proper identity118.
Citizens of modern Russia encounter difficulties not only with the collective identity, but also
with the awareness of their own country. A political scientist S. Markedonov has pointed out that
117 Data of Institute of sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Russian identity in sociological aspects.
Analytic report, Moscow, 2007 (http://www.isras.ru/)
118 Ibidem.
33
“there is no definite system in the image of Russia as a government. Rather, there are several
mythical images. Among them there is no image of Russia as a young democratic state that was
born as a result of August bourgeois revolution” 119. At the same time, differently from the period of
1990s, when many people thought that the idea of “the great power” died definitely not only
politically (this death found its realization in the collapse of the USSR), but also in people's minds
and souls, when most of them were busy rather with their “own affairs” than with the greatness and
ambitions of their government, at present time the situation has changed: in the last decade the
idea of “great power” apparently has gained the second wind. According to S. Markedonov, there
are three mythical images of the “great Russian power”:
The first and still the most important is the image of Russia as Soviet Union, “with which its
creators of the image connect existence of the Golden Age in Russia. What is modern Russia for
them?
A stump of the USSR, a bastard state, which does not even deserve to be protected”
(ibidem). Indeed, in 2007 only 43% of male respondents were ready to go at war for the sake of
Russia. Even today Russians find symbols of Russian greatness in the Soviet past of the country.
First of all, it is the victory of the Soviet people in the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) (67% of
respondents gave this answer). 61% of respondents replied that reconstruction of the country after
the war makes them feel proud. Among top 5 achievements of Russia were enumerated the
success of the Russian space exploration (54%), the first space travel of Yuri Gagarin (42%). To a
great extent the success of the Soviet period can explain the fact that 26% of respondents
admitted that they were proud of achievements of Russian sportsmen. The characteristic traits of
modern Russian era are perceived by Russians without much enthusiasm. For instance, only 16%
of respondents considered the authority of Russia in the world as something to be proud of. Only
16% of people believed that Russian educational system is worthy of pride120.
The second myth, according to S. Markedonov, is the Russian empire and the process to its
return. People who have created this myth “advocate “the reestablishment of the Empire and
historical succession”121.
The third myth is Russia of “renascence” or “finding of roots”, “going back to the starting
point”. Its authors are “active members of ethnic nationalist movements in republics and various
regions that form modern Russia, and which population mostly differs from the Russian ethnic
group (Cossacks, the Chechen, for instance). People who advocate “Russian renascence” talk
about particular uniqueness of their nations, their “ancient history”. But, while Russian renascence
is a mere myth, they assert their rights on “their territory” in reality, and in this way Russia can
witness the revival of North Caucasian policy of kinship and nepotism, restrictions and constraints
119 Sergey MARKEDONOV, “National identification of Russia: awareness of common citizenship or the call of
blood”, Klub mirovoj politicheskoj economiki, 2007
120 Data Russian identity in sociological aspects, 2007
121 MARKEDONOV, “National identification of Russia: awareness of common citizenship or the call of blood”
34
on the national basis122.
The study of Russian autostereotypes is also complicated by the fact that it is often difficult
to separate ideas seen by Russians as negative from those that are seen as positive traits of
Russian national character. Moreover, they are represented in a covert or a mixed way. This
feature can be illustrated by a statement of a famous Russian opera singer G. Vishnevskaya:
“What, from your point of view, is the specific trait of Russians?”
“It is that everything is mixed in them: both optimism and pessimism. Today he is terribly depressed, but
tomorrow he is ready to perform a feat”123.
The traditional perception of the national Russian character as something paradoxical and
controversial follows from this mixture.
It is worthy of note that the researches on contradictions of the Russian soul became once
the object of surveys of many Russian historians, philosophers, writers. V. Klyuchevsky, N. Lossky,
N. Berdyaev, F. Dostoevsky considered Russian national character as something vague,
ambiguous, consisting of opposite desires that were never thought through. F. Dostoevsky made a
famous statement, according to which the Russian man is too wide and he'd better be restricted,
as in him the most spiritual and the meanest desires live simultaneously and in harmony124.
Nevertheless, the report of the Institute of sociology gives abundant data on the
autostereotypes of the modern historical period. Within the framework of autostereotypes,
Russians see themselves hospitable (83%), just (82%), courageous (76%), tolerant (76%), with
good sense of humour (71%), spiritual (67), inquisitive (65%), and, at the same time, they consider
themselves lazy (60%), unstable (60%), unreliable (53%) and passive (51.2%). Russians do not
consider themselves neither law-abiding (only 15.5% respondents admitted this quality), nor
punctual (7% of positive replies). On the other hand, egoism as a trait of Russian national
character is denied as well (14.3%), and probably it is connected to the underdeveloped Russian
individualism (less than 30% of respondents think that Russians are individualistic)125.
The type of a given society is defined to a great extent by the system of values that were
accepted in it and that underlies its national character. There following traits are considered to be
the part and parcel of Russian identity:
1. Justice/verity.
One of few positive autostereotypes, fixed in Russian language of the modern period is the
intension to be fair: justice, sensitiveness that can even transform into sacrifice: “Aspiration for
justice, sacrifice – these are the main traits of the Russian character”126.
122 Ibidem.
123 Evgenia TSINKLER, Rossiyskaya gazeta, 16 February 2012 (www,rg.ru).
124 Fedor DOSTOEVSKY, The brothers Karamazov, Moscow, Exmo, 2008.
125 Data Russian identity in sociological aspects, 2007.
126 Difiramb, Ekho Moskvy, 20 October 2013.
35
On the other hand, in an attempt to reach absolute justice, Russian people today (as
probably always in the past) think that it is morally acceptable to use so called “white lie” 127, which
is the evidence of how difficult it can be to separate
negative and positive Russian
autostereotypes: on one hand, it is justice (positive), on the other hand, it is a lie (negative),
furthermore, the last one originates from the first one.
By means of experiments, a sociologist V. Znakov has revealed the phenomenon of a
“moral lie” that consists in the fact that most respondents agreed to bear false witness in the court
in order to save a falsely charged person. The respondents themselves explained it by the fact that
the imperfection of the Russian law system tolerates the possibility of prosecution of a guiltless
person. For this reason false testimony for the sake of salvation, in psychological and moral
aspects stop being false. This kind of lie is interpreted as a part of honesty, necessary condition of
fair attitude towards people in trouble. The beginnings of such attitude V. Znakov sees in different
understanding of “truth” and “verity” in Russian cultural tradition. The “truth” in Russian
consciousness is understood as a category that expresses an integral view of the world of a
person,
notion, based on beliefs, traditions, ideas about justice in the relationships between
people, while verity is only common impersonal verification of correspondence of an utterance and
the reality128. More than once F. Dostoevsky noticed that, when a Russian person has to choose
between verity and justice, he will rather choose a lie than injustice.
In this way, “verity” and “justice” into the consciousness of Russian people can represent
notions of different order, and justice will always be more valuable than verity, even if in order to be
just one has to resort to a lie. This is one of the most important moment of Russian ethic selfidentification.
2. Wealth and business.
“All these deaths are the echo of 1990s. Reusable bullets that fired in that period still
proceed to kill. The rules of the game, offered by the state, which was creating the class of
property owners, the society sealed with blood, with memorial tablets bearing the names of the
young people who rest now in the lanes of Glory of Russian grave-yards. Exactly at that time
today's victims and clients signed these rules of the game. And today they respond: Russian
business is still war”129.
Why Russians see business in a negative way? One of the possible answers can be found
in the following utterance: “A Russian man can not live just by running business. He needs idea, a
kind of spirituality”130.
127 In Russian this expression is translated as ˝ложь во спасение˝ (lozh' vo spasenie), that literally means “lie for the
sake of salvation”.
128 Vladimir ZNAKOV, Understanding of truth and lies in Russian historical cultural tradition, Moscow, Flinta, 1997.
129 Moskovskie novosti, 5, 2004.
130 Andrey KONCHALOVSKY, Andrey Konchalovsky on Russian mentality, (http://theoryandpractice.ru/).
36
Negative attitude towards money, poverty are seen as positive qualities, because in
Russian consciousness there is a deep-rooted notion of “rich men as thieves”. “Russian man finds
it a bit shameful to be rich”131. In this context a word “a bit” smooths the rigidity of the word
“shameful”, that is nowadays it is just a bit shameful to be wealthy. This shift can be understood as
a result of changes in the Russian psychology, in system of values of the Russian society, caused
by social changes after the USSR collapsed.
3. An active/passive approach to life.
Idleness and inability to work constantly in an organized manner were enumerated among
the main disadvantages of the Russian character in XIX century. This inability was partly explained
by the fear of the intellectual work: any difficulty on the way to the implementation of a plan leads to
panic and the desire to leave it. It was also mentioned that because of their passivity, idleness,
inability to bring things to an end Russians submit to their drawbacks, consciously abandon
themselves into sufferances, enjoy them and and use them as an excuse for every failure.
In this context it should be mentioned that according to another Russian autostereotype if a
Russian becomes active, in this activity he goes to the end132.
4. Finally, maximalism, the inability to stop lead to another famous notion of Russians about
themselves: heavy drinking.
1.3.5. Russia's image and heterostereotypes about Russia
In view of the tasks of the present research which deal with the construction of Russia's
conceptual “portrait” in the framework of cognitive linguistics it is worthy to study the existing
literature on Russia's image and stereotypes about it.
Russia is a country that incurs ambiguous attitude towards itself. Average perception of
Russia in the world is quite complicated: according to the National Brands Index 2013 of Simon
Anholt, the country ranks in the top 10 in such areas as sport, culture, historical heritage, science
and technology, but takes much lower places in the areas connected to the public administration
and population, to contribution of its government towards the international security and the
peacekeeping, to the environmental protection and the expectations from hypothetical visit to
Russia. People in whole world admire some things associated with Russia and, at the same time,
they overtly dislike others133.
There are various approaches in studies of an image of a country abroad. Interesting
sources of information can be public opinion polls, researches of political scientists, studies of
guidebooks (that represent culture and stereotypes about a country in a compressed way),
131 Ibidem.
132 A Russian proverb says: “Make a man pray to the God and he will hurt his forehead”.
133 Simon ANHOLT, “International image. Why is it important?”, Ria Novosti 15 September 2013.
37
analysis of philological works, experiments, etc.
For instance, T. Alekseeva approaches the problem of Russia's image in the view of
widespread stereotypes of foreign Russian philology134. The researcher has scrutinized books
about Russia, which were published abroad in 1990s. She has arrived at a conclusion that Russia
in general exists for modern foreign readers in three core realizations:
1. Russia as an anomaly. It is Russia of “political imprisonment and mass terror, insane ideas
and mad projects, “devils of revolution” and intestine strifes, of everything that goes beyond
the frames of generally adopted norms. Paradoxically the perception of Russia as an
anomaly is defined to a great extent by Russian propensity for genius as mental norm”.
2. Russia as a “bride”, “woman slave”, that is the female incarnation of the country, the image
of “mother Russia”.
3. Russia as a norm. In this framework the search of national identity takes place135.
Authors of a collective monograph on Russian and American communicative behaviour M.
Sternin and I. Sternin have offered “the eye of Other” on Russian communicative norms in
comparison to American ones. For instance, writing about Russian propensity for various
discussions and controversies the authors have mentioned: “Issues of a discussion are formulated
by Russians in a very explicit way. They usually ask to reply “yes” or “no”. The possibility of a
compromise settlement is practically absent”136.
There are studies on inter-cultural communication, dedicated to the image of Russia
abroad, carried out by Russian philologists. For instance, thorough researches were conducted in
the field of national stereotypes, that is stereotypes about Russia and Russian population, existing
in other countries. For instance, researchers T. Grushevitskaya, V. Popkov, A. Sadohin have written
that “among stereotypes that became widespread in Japan in recent years, the ones, that identify
Russians with the organized crime must be singled out. Large numbers of the Japanese are prone
to see Russian men as mafia, who come to Japan in order to establish there their criminal
business. It causes fear and unwillingness to communicate with them”137.
A separate field of research on the perception of Russia abroad in general is an attempt to
single out and define the set of qualities, that characterize a “typical Russian”. “Among positive
features of Russians the following can usually be enumerated: warmth, cordiality, openness in
communications between people, cheerfulness and thirst for various holidays. The quality of
Russian hospitality is also one of the most widespread” 138. The authors have accentuated, that the
Russians who belong to a “feminine” culture are characterized by “passivity, readiness to endure
injustice toward themselves for a long time, pessimism and humbleness, the absence of self134 Tatiana ALEXEEVA, “Russia in global perception”, Mezhdunarodnie protsessy, 2005.
135 Ibidem.
136 Maria STERNINA, Igor STERNIN, Russian and American communicative behavior, Voronezh, Istoki Publishing,
2003.
137 GRUSHEVITSKAYA, POPKOV, SADOKHIN. Introduction to intercultural communication.
138 Ibidem.
38
restraint, idleness and pride, almost bordering haughtiness. The tendency abuse alcohol is also
often mentioned and given a negative assessment”139.
One of the fundamental factors of perception of Russia in general is “mysterious Russian
soul”. The notion of “Russian soul” comprises the explanation of many examples of typical
behaviour of the Russians. In particular, the extreme bipolarity of Russia and the Russians, its
originality, ambiguity, unexplainable actions of both individuals and the country as a whole, can be
explained exactly by the “Russian soul” (ibidem).
In her PhD dissertation I. Strizhova has argued that the perception of Russia by the
Japanese to a great extent remained unchanged in comparison to the XVIII-XIX centuries. While
Russians have formed and have conserved the stereotypes of perception that concern personal
qualities of the Japanese (industry, diligence, intellectual curiosity, pedantry, respectful attitude
towards proper traditions and traditions of others), the stereotypical perception of Russia in Japan
was mostly contaminated by images of Russia as a contender for other countries' territories (Kuril
Islands), a dangerous neighbour – enemy140.
In the similar vein his thought has formulated a political scientist A. Kulanov: “The image of
Russia has 250 years of history in Japan. In the course of Japan – Russia relations history it has
not changed significantly. For this reason it can be considered stable, based on a particular
geopolitical code. The basis of this code is the understanding of Russia as a huge and
incomprehensible country in the North, that harbours a hidden threat. One of the most widespread
designations of Russia in Japan is “the menace from the North”. This notion takes Russia out of
the context of standard modern geopolitical definitions: for the Japanese we do not belong neither
to the West, nor to the East, and, certainly, we are not the South. Russia is situated in the North,
which concept is unclear and, in fact, of little interest. On the geographical level, we find ourself
excluded from the world system of foreign policy orientation”141.
A. Bukh has studied the perception of Russia as Japan's “Other” in the sociocultural identity
of Japan. According to his research a certain understanding of Russian national character exists
within the discourse of Nihonjinron and is characterized by the following features:
•
Russia is the opposition of the Japanese “Self” in terms of civilization and culture: it is wild,
chauvinistic and barbarian;
•
Russian mentality is characterized by respect towards a strong leader and xenophobia;
Russians lack individualism and rationalism;
•
Russian character does not change, no matter who rules Russia, for Japan it is always an
unchangeable “Other”142.
139 Ibidem.
140 Inna STRIZHOVA, Genesis of Russian policy toward Japan in the XVIII - early XIX century, Saransk, 2003
141 Anton KULANOV, “Image of Russia and Japan: three sacramental questions”, Korporativnaya imidzhelogia, 3,
2008.
142 Alexander BUKH, Japan's National Identity and Foreign Policy Russia as Japan's 'Other', Routledge, 2011.
39
Many researchers of the Russian image in the world have claimed that big numbers of
people in Japan lack knowledge about Russia and bear the sense of fear towards it. In one of his
essays A. Kulanov has written: “If Russia suddenly disappears, Japan will probably not even notice
it” is one of the most favourite phrases of Japanese political scientists”. The public opinion,
according to his research, is also close to this conclusion: “The Japanese feel indifferent towards
Russia”143.
The Japanese public opinion toward Russia in itself seem not to keep pace with changes
that took place in the country. Similarly to S. Anholt, who has claimed, that most people of the
world still do not see the difference between Soviet Union and Russia 144, a Japanese journalist
Tokunaga Yuki has maintained that “the Japanese do not understand that Russia has changed
even 23 years after the collapse of the USSR. The overwhelming majority of the Japanese still
think that there are long queues in front of shops in Moscow” 145. In his point of view, the
stereotypical perception of Russia in Japan can be formulated in the following way: “it is dark,
frightening and cold”146.
The specialist in the Japanese philology M. Levchenko has hold that “the image of Russia
formed in Japan can be formulated in an extremely capacious way in just four words: 遠い、寒い、
暗 い 、 危 な い tōi, samui, kurai, abunai (remote, cold, dark, dangerous)”147. “There are only
Russians who live in Russia. The Russians are big, tall, strong and beautiful people, who talk in a
loud voice. Russians drink vodka and dance “Kozachok” (コザクダンス kazakudansu). Favourite
dishes of the Russians are borscht and pirozhki”148.
In the similar vein, A. Zhdanov has written into his research that Russia for an average
Japanese is “big, cold, incomprehensible and scary country”. Several respondents noticed that “it
is a country that possesses energy supply and which women are very beautiful. Other respondents
(few people) replied that Russia reminds them of a wide field, sad popular songs and kind women
in villages”149. The Japanese sport fans associate Russia with “famous Russian sportsmen. Elder
generations and well-educated people know great Russian culture and literature. Precedent
stereotypes in this case are: ballet, circus, Tchaikovsky, Bolshoi theatre, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy.
Another widespread stereotype of the perception of Russia is that it is not just dangerous and
aggressive, but also lacks freedom and democracy. Russia is famous with its mafia and rich
people150.
143 KULANOV, “Image of Russia and Japan: three sacramental questions”.
144 Natalia GARBER, “Simon Anholt: the problem of Russia is that it is seen as a burden”, Snob, 29 December 2012
(www.snob.ru)
145 TOKUNAGA Yukio, “Stereotypes: to fight or to use?”, Ibusiness, 2 July 2012.
146 Ibidem.
147 Valeriy ZHDANOV, “Particularities of stereotypical perception of Russia in Japan and of Japan in Russia”, Vestnik
MGU, 2, 2009
148 Ibidem.
149 Ibidem.
150 Ibidem.
40
Dark coloration of the Japanese stereotypes about Russia is, first of all, due to the negative
social and historical experience of contacts between Japan and Russia 151, that can not be forgotten
as in case of the USA and still exists into the mass consciousness.
Secondly, modern Japanese mass media play the leading role in the creation of this kind of
stereotypes and the successful realization of their manipulative functions. According to Tokunaga
A., “the creation of dark image of Russia is the problem of journalists which a priori have already
moulded stereotype about Russia as an unstable country where “everything” can happen, including
demonstrations and rebellions. This kind of the information transmission create the idea about
“dangerous” Russia”152.
Thirdly, the lack of knowledge contributes to the creation of Russia's dark image. “If an
average Japanese thinks about a different country, it will probably be the USA, France or the UK.
[…] On the other hand, Russia, due to the lack of knowledge, remains a remote, alien and scary
country for many Japanese. Elder generations perceive Russia in a more concrete way: they
remember about the USSR during the Second World War”153.
While on the subject of the researches on Russia's image in other countries it is clear that
as any attempt of examination of abstract and vague conceptions (which is in fact Russian image)
they have certain limitations. First of all, many researches are limited by the result of public opinion
polls which involve only small groups of respondents (for instance, a university students). Others
consist in an analysis of Japanese political scientists works of a certain period, which gives
interesting, but generalized and restricted material. Many texts are limited by empiric analysis and
do not give any explanation of the differences between Russia and Japan. And indeed, most
researches are concentrated on differences between the two countries, and not their similarities.
Finally, there has been no attempt to scrutinize the image of Russia in Japan in the framework of
cognitive linguistics and on the material of mass media.
Conclusions to the chapter I
The main tendency of Russia's perception in Japan is the statement of differences between
the countries. Russia as “Other” is seen as an authoritarian, conflict and irrational country that lack
individualism.
The main approaches to the study of texts of Asahi Shinbun are:
1. the study of texts that takes into consideration such particularities of mass media texts as
publicity, general availability and orientation on propaganda and agitation. These
particularities define some style and linguistic features of printed media. For instance,
151 600 thousand prisoners of war in Siberian camps, the territorial dispute, firing of Japanese fishing-boats by Russian
frontier guards, etc.
152 TOKUNAGA, “Stereotypes: to fight or to use?”.
153 KAVATO Akio, “Russia: East or West? Is the question relevant?”, Vzglyad iz Yaponii, 7 April 2005.
41
general availability define the tendency to use cliché, idioms, symbols and stereotypes,
which include evaluative component. Frequent use of metaphors and actualization of the
“friend or foe” opposition are connected with the function of propaganda of mass media;
2. discursive approach that take into consideration the existence in consciousness of authors
and recipients of components, which influence perception of texts (sociocultural, pragmatic,
psychological).
The study of the concept 'roshia'' is conducted in the framework of conceptual language
modeling. It is considered that every language as a result and means of cultural activities of
different nations represents the world in its own way and defines particularities of its perception
and conceptualization.
42
CHAPTER II
MEANS OF ACTUALIZATION OF THE CONCEPT 'ROSHIA' IN THE
DISCOURSE OF ASAHI SHINBUN
43
2.1. Means of actualization of the concept　'roshia' in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun
V. Morkovkin has noticed that a language, at least as it has come to us now, “can be
considered as a peculiar key to the world, an interpreter of the world, a classifier of the world” 154.
Consequently, in order to abstract the structure of a concept, as the first stage, the ways
and means of actualization of the concept must be ascertained. T. Chromova has defined
actualization as “the transition from the abstract dictionary entry, that belongs to the list of
definitions of a language (that is virtual entity) to the specific notion of a speaking subject,
materializing into a system of signs (relevant signs)” 155. In this case the dichotomy “language and
speech (text)” is considered into the framework of cognitive aspect: “the knowledge exists into
semantics of words and accumulates into lexicon”156. Furthermore, in a single act of speech,
understood in the discursive way, can be realized only one facet of a linguistic unit.
The actualization of the concept 'roshia' within the discourse of the Japanese newspaper
Asahi Shinbun is realized:
1. by means of denomination of a concrete object, that is Russia as a country, government: “ ロシ
ア” roshia, “ロシア連邦” roshia renpō, “ロシア側” roshiagawa, “ロシア帝国” roshiateikoku;
2. by means denomination of Russian realities (people, events, etc.): in this case the concept is
realized by lexical elements “ ロシア人 ” roshiajin/“ ロシアの ” roshiano/”ロシア ” roshia　+
noun («Russia» + genitive case particle + noun);
3. by means of different words and word-combinations, for instance: “ソ連”soren, “ソビエト国
家” sobietokokka, “巨大国家” kyodaikokka, “おとぎの国” otoginokuni, “東欧” tōō. This
category includes all denomination of Russia and Russian realities, which does not include the root
“ロ” ro.
Following the thought of B. Russel and taking into consideration, that a word is a name of a
concept, it is understood as a unit that has “more or less undefined meanings, which can only be
defined by way of observation of its usage... all meanings can be extracted from it”. Consequently,
the starting point for the further formation of frames and metaphoric models, and statistical analysis
of the most important parts of Russian life within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun is the analysis of
syntactic positions of classifiers (verbal: subjective and objective; adjective, substantive and
combinations with postpositions). At the same time the word 'roshia' is the classified element.
Each of the above-enumerated group will be divided into blocks according to the type of
syntactic functioning of the lexeme. The distributional analysis will be conducted in the view of
“possibility of a linguistic unit to perform a function of categorization and classification of another
154 Victor MORKOVKIN, The experience of ideographic description of lexicon, Moscow, Nauka, 1977.
155 Tatiana CHROMOVA, Actualization of the concept “Truth” in modern English language, PhD dissertation abstract,
Irkutsk, 2002.
156 SANTSEVICH, Modeling of world-views on the basis of bilingual corpus of journalistic texts.
44
linguistic unit in respect to others”157. In this way, verbal, adjective and substantive classifiers of the
concept play a part into formation of the whole structure of knowledge about Russia, represented
by the newspaper Asahi Shinbun.
In the first group (denomination of the country ロシア roshia) the following subgroups will be
singled out according to the type of syntactic functioning of the lexeme:
1. ロシア roshia + verb/copula (as a subject of action), for instance: “ ロシアが愛したフランス絵
画” (French paintings loved by Russia); “ロシアも批判する” (Criticizes either Russia);
2. ロシア roshia + verb (as an object of action), for instance: “ 米国とロシアをてんびんにかける
時代がきた” (it is time to put the US and Russia on scales);
3. noun modifier +　ロシア　roshia (“Russia” in the definable position), for instance: “巨大なロシ
ア”kyodaina roshia (huge Russia), “まったく別のロシア” mattaku betsuno roshia (absolutely
different Russia), “ エ ネ ル ギ ー 資 源 輸 出 国 で あ る ロ シ ア ” (the exporter of energy resources
Russia);
4. ロシア roshia + postposition, for instance: “ ロシアへ の 中古車輸出” (imports in Russia of
second hand cars); “ロシアから２５億ユーロの支援を受ける” (to receive the support of 2.5
billion euro from Russia);
5. ロシア roshia /ロシアの roshiano in a predicate position, for instance: “飛行艇の製造企業がある
国は日本とロシア、カナダの３カ国とされる。”(The three countries that produce flying boats
are Japan, Russia and Canada)158.
In the second group (The way of realization of the concept are lexemes “ロシアの”、 “ロ
シア人”, word combination with the root ロ) the following subgroups were singled out:
1. ロシア roshia + noun modifier の no + noun, for instance: “ 韓 国は ロシアの 協力 を得 た。 ”
(South Korea collaborated with Russia);
2. words with the root “ロ”ro: “ロシア人” roshiajin, “ロ関係” chūrokankei.
In the third group examples with the following lexemes were included:
1. ソ 連 soren (“ 旧 ソ 連 ” kyūsoren, “ 旧 ソ 連 諸 国 ” kyūsoren shokoku, “ ソ ビ エ ト 国 家 ”
sobietokokka), for instance: “ ソ連 が７９年にアフガンに 軍事介入 した ” 。(In 1979 the USSR
intruded in Afghanistan)159;
2. Denominations referring to Russia's geographical position: “ 東欧” tōō, “北アジア” kitaajia,
“海の向こう” uminomukō, for instance: “海の向こうではとっくに高い評価を受け” (a long time
ago it received positive evaluation overseas);
157 Olga BORISKINA, Alexander KRETOV, Theory of linguistic categorization. National linguistic consciousness
through the prism of cryptoclass, Voronezh, VGU, 2003.
158 Asahi Shinbun, 18 September 2013.
159 Asahi Shinbun, 15 February 2013.
45
3. other contextual denominations, for instance: “でも、周囲の大人たちのイメージは「怖い国」
(USSR)» (However, the image of people around was that of “the scary country” (USSR)).
Every classifier is interesting because it has a definite value. Their value can be realized
into syntactic properties of linguistic units and it is influenced by features of meanings. A.
Wierzbicka has defined meaning as “only constant, not variable conditions of word usages”, that is
a meaning is what we “bear in mind” or “have in view”. Meanings are subjects to interpretation,
whereas an interpretation is connected with word senses, which the author tries to structure by
means of semantic primitives160.
On the other hand, the integral approach to the study is based on the acceptance of the fact
that the content plane is connected with the idea of implication, based on the existence of
associative chains of lexical meanings of words.
2.1. Denomination of the country ロシア　roshia as the means of actualization of the
concept 'roshia'
2.1.1. The means of actualization of the concept:　”ロシア roshia + verb” (as the subject of
action)
In the first category (the means of actualization of the concept: lexeme ロシア roshia) the
block “ロシア roshia + verb” (as a subject of action) is divided into ten groups, and some of the are
also divided into subgroups, united according to the meaning of verbs:
Group 1. “ロシア roshia + verb/copula” (meaning: state or change of state)
Subgroup 1. “ロシア roshia + verb/copula” (meaning: state),
Subgroup 2. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: change of state);
Group 2. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: possession);
Group 3. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: social actions)
Subgroup 1. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: social actions of the sphere “war”),
Subgroup 2. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: social actions of the sphere “collaboration”),
Subgroup 3. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: other social actions);
Group 4. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: intention);
Group 5. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: perception);
Group 6. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: speech);
Group 7. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: movement);
Group 8. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: physical actions);
160 WIERZBICKA, Comparison of cultures through language and pragmatics.
46
Group 9. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: location);
Group 10: “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: internal state of a human being).
In the first group the concept is actualized by means of verbs/copula that reflect a state or a
change of state (the group includes two subgroups). These verb and copula ( ある　aru －1. there
is, there are, exist; 2. be situated, be located; 3. consist in, lie in; 4. express a statement,
judgment in the form　である de aru)161 ascribe to Russia the following features: 1) existence; 2)
subject of action; 3) possession of a definite quality; 4) state: “まったく別のロシアが、そこにあっ
た。”(There was an absolutely different Russia)162；ロシアは脅威だ。(Russia is a threat)163.
By means of verbs with the meaning “change of state”, like “なる”、 “変わる”, verb-verb
compounds with “ は じ ま る / は じ め る ” ( な る – 1. become, get, grow, be; 2. turn (red); get
(better); go (blind); 3. begin to do, come to do, get to do; change, undergo a change, be altered,
turn into) (研究社 新和英中辞典) Russia is described as an independently changing society, being,
country, for instance: “ ロシアと中国も深い関係で結ばれるようになっている。”(Russia and
China are becoming closer to each other.)164; “ロシアは変わった という印象を抱きました。”
(There was an impression that Russia changed.)165.
In the second group of the block “ロシア roshia + verb” the concept is actualized by means
of verbs with the meaning of possession: “ あ る ” (have, own, possess; be equipped with
something)166; “ 所 有 す る ” (have, own, possess, be the owner of, be the owner of, be in
possession of)167. These verbs actualize the concept's feature “possession, property”, by their
means the ability to own something is ascribed to Russia: “ ロシアが保有する美術品” (the art
works that owns Russia), “ ロ シ ア に は 犯 罪 や 汚 職 な ど 大 き な 問 題 が あ る 。 ” (Crimes and
corruptions are big issues of Russia.) 168, “ロシアは欧州とアジアの一部であるという気持ちがある
なら、東アジアの不安定な情勢を改めるために責任を共有して欲しいと。” (As Russia is located
in both Europe and Asia, it should share the responsibility to the improvement of the unstable
situation in Asia.)169.
Group 3. “ロシア roshia + verb” (with the meaning of social actions: sphere “war”, sphere
“collaboration” and other types of social activities).
161 Kenkyūsha shinwaeichūjiten, (http://ejje.weblio.jp/)
162 Asahi Shinbun, 28 December 2013.
163 Asahi Shinbun, 5 January 2013
164 Asahi Shinbun, 7 January 2013.
165 Asahi Shinbun, 12 October 2013.
166 Kenkyūsha shinwaeichūjiten, (http://ejje.weblio.jp/)
167 Ibidem.
168Asahi Shinbun, 4 January 2013
169 Asahi Shinbun, 20 February 2013
47
The predicates of the first subgroup (sphere “war”) describe the ability of Russia to
participate in a war, win, lose, revolt, express hostility, fight and to arm itself: “ ロ シ ア が 優 勝 し
た。”(Russia won.)170; “ロシアは２９日にフランスと対戦する。” (Russia will compete with
France on August, 29.)171; “２００８年にロシアとグルジアが衝突した。”(Russia and Giorgia
collided in 2008.)172; “ロシアや中国は、引き渡しを求める米国に激しく反発している。” (Russia
and China have been vigorously repelling the demand of the USA of hanging over.) 173;　“米欧は化
学兵器を使ったとしてアサド政権の退陣を求め、ロシアは抵抗した。”(While the US and Europe
are determined to step down the regime of Assad as using chemical weapons, Russia resists.)174.
In the second subgroup there are predicates that describe Russia as tolerant, collaborative
accepting and rendering assistance: “ロシアは１１年末に金融支援をした。”(In the end on 2011
Russia rendered financial assistance.)175; “沿岸の日本・ロシア・中国・韓国の４カ国が共同で取り
組 ん で い る 。 ” (The four countries – coastal Japan, Russia, China and Korea are working
together.)176. This subgroup is the smallest in number, which reflects the accentuation on
stereotypical perception of Russia as a “cold, hostile, threatening” country.
The predicates that can not be ascribed to any of the first two subgroups are combined in
the third one. They describe actions of Russia in the social sphere: Russia seeks political solutions,
abstains from voting, proves and asserts something and dispatches its bureaucrats to solve
existing problems: “ ロ シ ア は こ の ２ 地 域 の 独 立 を 承 認 し た 。 ” (Russia acknowledged the
independence of two regions.)177; “ロシアは海外へ使節を派遣した。”(Russia dispatched envoys
to foreign countries.)178, etc. This subgroup is the most numerous, as it reflects the variety of
actions took by Russia.
The verbs of this subgroup actualize anthropomorphous features of
Russia, for instance, mental: “この問題は日ロ間で政治的解決を見た。” (The problem found a
political solution between Japan and Russia.)179, social: “ロシアは２年前、「シリアに化学兵器は
存在しない」として一蹴していた。”(There is no chemical weapons in Syria”, refused Russia 2
years ago.)180; “ロシア、引き渡し拒否” (Russia rejects hanging over.)181, etc.
Group 4 “ ロ シ ア roshia + verb” (of intention) includes word-combinations with predicates
170 Asahi Shinbun, 27 July 2013.
171 Asahi Shinbun, 27 August 2013.
172 Asahi Shinbun, 8 August 2013.
173 Asahi Shinbun. 14 June 2013.
174 Asahi Shinbun 20 June 2013.
175 Asahi Shinbun 20 March 2013.
176 Asahi Shinbun, 12 April 2013.
177 Asahi Shinbun 6 December 2013.
178 Asahi Shinbun 3 July 2013.
179 Asahi Shinbun, 7 May 2013.
180 Asahi Shinbun, 12 June 2013.
181 Asahi Shinbun, 28 June 2013.
48
that express intention. For instance, verb stems with the suffix “ たい” tai, “目指す” mezasu,
“決める” kimeru, “主張する” shuchōsuru endow Russia with intensional features, peculiar to
a human being. The actions, usually took by the man, turn out to be intrinsic to the whole country.
Obviously, the metonymy is possible, because a country is usually represented by one-two
persons, its leaders on the international scene. These people act on behalf of the whole country.
The examples of this groups are: “ロシアは目を向けるようになった。” (Russia shifted its focus
to the (Japanese market)182; “ ロ シ ア は ア ジ ア 向 け の 輸 出 を 増 や し た い 。 ” (Russia want to
increase its exports to Asia.)183.
The fifth and the sixth groups consist of the verbs of perception and speech consequently.
These word combinations constitute anthropomorphous metaphors, based on the personification of
Russia. They ascribe to the country anthropomorphous features and qualities, forming a
conceptual structure “Russia as a human being”, as only a human being is able to speak. For
instance: “中国、ロシア、韓国、北朝鮮、モンゴル、日本は経済交流の現状と展望を２日間の日程
で話し合う。” (During two days China, Russia, South Korea, North Korea, Mongolia and Japan will
discuss the state of affairs and prospects of economic exchange.) 184; “ロシアが今回、安倍首相の
参拝を「遺憾だ」と批判した 。” (“It is regrettable”, criticized Russia this visit to the shrine of the
Prime Minister Abe.)185.
By means of the verb “感じる” kanjiru and words with the morpheme “感”　kan Russia is
described as a being with anthropomorphous features, able to feel, perceive a situation, an
environment by means of feelings: “しかし、そのころ中国と国境確定の交渉をし、後に解決した
ロシアは感じていた。”(However, that time Russia was negotiating with China over the border,
and after that it had the feeling of resolution.)186; “ロシアは自分たちの核ミサイルも役に立たなく
な っ て し ま う の も 感 じ て い る 。 ” (Russia is worried that its own nuclear missiles will become
useless.)187
Group 7 “ ロシア + verb” (meaning: movement) is formed by the verbs of movement (“ 動
く ” ugoku, “ 流 れ る ” nagareru, “ 進 む / 進 め る ” susumu/susumeru). These verbs describe
Russia as: 1. moving towards something (ahead, back, upward); 2. moving without a precise goal;
3. the source of movement: “ロシアは民主主義に向かって動いた。”(Russia was moving towards
democratization.)188; “ロシアや日本、韓国との関係強化を進める。”(Japan and Russia advance
182 Asahi Shinbun, 21 June 2013.
183 Asahi Shinbun , 20 January 2013.
184 Asahi Shinbun, 3 March 2013.
185 Asahi Shinbun , 31 December 2013.
186Asahi Shinbun , 30 July 2013.
187 Asahi Shinbun, 2 August 2013.
188 Asahi Shinbun, 1 August 2013.
49
the reinforcement of their relations with Korea.)189. The metaphor “ ロ シ ア が 動 か す ウ ク ラ イ ナ
件 。 ” (Russia sets in motion the case of Ukraine.)190 describes Russia as a puppeteer, able to
influence movements of another country.
Group 8. “ロシア roshia + verb” (of physical actions) includes predicates that represent vital
metaphors, based on the image that the whole country moves as a live creature, implementing
various actions, for instance, grows, catches something, scatter something, draws something: “ ロ
シ ア は 経 済 的 独 立 と い う 幻 想 を ふ り ま く 。 ” (Russia sprinkles the idea of the independent
economy.)191; “ロシアは勝手に境界線を引いている。”(Russia draws borders on a whim.)192; “ロ
シアは急成長している。” (Russia grows quickly.)193.
Group 9. “ロシア roshia + verb” (meaning: location) includes the verbs or copula with the meaning
of location. These predicates represent not only the geographical position of Russia: “日本に陸の国
境はないが、海ではロシア、北朝鮮、韓国、中国、台湾、フィリピン、米国とＥＥＺが接してい
る。” (Although Japan has no land borders, it has maritime borders with Russia, North Korea,
South Korea, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, the USA ans the EEZ.) 194, but also economic, social
indexes of the country: “茶の輸入量はロシアがトップ。” (Russia is the top importer of tea)195;
“新興国のブラジル、ロシア、インド、中国は欧米先進国に続く。” (The emerging countries
Brazil, Russia, India and China follow developed countries of Europe and the US.) 196; “ロシア６３
位 だ っ た 。 ” (Russia was rank 63.)197, and its mental standpoint which is actualized by the
phrase “ロシアの立場” roshiano tachiba (Russian position). The representation of Russia as an
object locating somewhere, is connected to the difficulties of understanding of such abstract
notions as economic situation of a country, often represented by vegetative metaphors like “経済成
長”keizai seichō, “ 経済繁栄”keizai han'ei (economic growth, economic prosperity). The abovementioned examples communicate “non-spatial ideas by means of spatial terms” 198. “Spatial
perception is the sphere of light, colour, sight and sense of touch; it conveys notions of a form and
a dimension. Our metaphoric system, giving non-spatial impressions spatial names, ascribes […]
feelings and thoughts such qualities like colour, light, form, outline, structure and movement,
189 Asahi Shinbun, 11 October 2013.
190 Asahi Shinbun, 23 December 2013.
191 Asahi Shinbun, 2 November 2013.
192 Asahi Shinbun, 25 October 2013.
193 Asahi Shinbun, 16 January 2013.
194 Asahi Shinbun, 24 June 2013.
195 Asahi Shinbun, 7 January 2013.
196 Asahi Shinbun, 15 September 2013.
197 Asahi Shinbun, 17 July 2013.
198Boris UORF, Relations of norms of behaviour and thinking with language, Saint Petersburg, SPBGU Press, 2001.
50
inherent in the spatial perception” 199. For instance, ranking Russia as “a top importer of tea”
characterizes the structure of its economy; “coming after developed countries” conveys the
meaning of the Russia's “economic growth”.
Group 10. “ロシア roshia + verb” (internal state of a human being) unites word combinations with
verbs that represent the internal state of the man, and, accordingly, constituting anthropomorphous
metaphors. Russia is represented as a person, able to feel various emotions (worry, joy) or cause
emotions (love, astonishment): “ロシアがその気になる。” (Russia is concerned about it.) 200; “な
ぜロシアはいつも片思いなのか。” (Why Russia's love is always one-sided?)201
Table 1.
“ロシア roshia + verb” (as a subject of action).
№
Groups of predicates (according to verbs' meaning)
Quantity (%)
1
With verbs, meaning social actions
38
2
With verbs, meaning state of a change of state
26.5
3
With verbs, meaning physical actions
8
4
With verbs, meaning an intention
7.5
5
With verbs, meaning location
6
6
With verbs, meaning movements
4
7
With verbs, meaning internal states of a human being
4
8
With verbs, meaning possession
3.5
9
With verbs, meaning perception
1.5
10
With verbs, meaning speech
1
2.1.2. The means of actualization of the concept “verb + ロシア roshia” (as an object of
action)
Block the means of actualization “ ロシア roshia + verb” (as an object of action) actualize
mainly the concept's feature “an object of action”. This block includes word-combinations with
transitive verbs and verbs used in passive voice combined with the lexeme “ ロシア” roshia as a
controlled object.
The semantics of verbs helps single out groups of word-combinations, which actualize the
following features of the country:
1. The first group is represented by predicates describing Russia as a terminal point, place to
be visited: “豊かな資源を持つロシアを訪れ” (to visit Russia that hold rich resources);
2. In various examples the country is represented as a mental object, as something that can
199 Ibidem.
200 Asahi Shinbun, 12 April 2013.
201 Asahi Shinbun, 11 January 2013.
51
(or cannot) be perceived, understood or judged: “ 日本人は過去のロシアを知っている”
(the Japanese know Russia of the past); “ 欧 州 は ロ シ ア を 分 か っ て い な い ” (Europe
doesn't understand Russia), etc.
3. In several cases Russia is included in a range of countries, or linked with another region on
the grounds of political or economic issues: “滞在中のロシアを含む計２１カ国に政治亡命
を申請した”((Snowden) has applied for political asylum in 21 countries, including Russia
during his stay there); “ロシアと新潟を結ぶ天然ガス” (Russia and Niigata, connected by
natural gas), etc.
4. Cultural institutions, writers appear as subjects, which represent, reflect Russia: “ ロシアを
代表する詩人” (the poet that represents Russia); “ボリショイは今のロシア自身を映す鏡
のようだ” (the Bolshoi theatre now is like a mirror reflecting Russia itself), etc.
5. In some occasions Russia is represented as a victim: “FSB がロシアを破壊する” (FSB
that ruins Russia); “ロシアを破壊する汚職” (corruption that ruins Russia); “ロシアを襲
った隕石” (Meteorite that attacked Russia), etc.
6. There are also anthropomorphous features being actualized in this block: “ロシアを反面教
師とする” (a bad example from which to learn); “日本はロシアを許せても、韓国や中国
は日本を許せるだろうか。”(Even if Japan forgives Russia, will Korea and China forgive
Japan?)202; “ロシアをＷＴＯに招いた” (Invited Russia in WTO).
A metaphor “てん びんにかける ” represents one of the examples of the USA-Russia
opposition in the texts of Asahi Shinbun: “米国とロシアをてんびんにかける時代がきた。” (it is
time to put the US and Russia on scales).
In total, the block is represented by 76 text elements.
2.1.3. Lexeme “ロシア” roshia, “ロシアの” roshia no, “ロシア人” roshiajin in the syntactic
position of a predicate as the way of actualization of the concept 'roshia'
In some text elements the lexeme representing the concept 'roshia' is placed in the position
of a predicate.
These text elements describes mostly the economic situation in Russia: the text fragment
“経済成長が著しいアゼルバイジャンとロシア” (Azerbaijan and Russia, which are characterized
by remarkable economic growth) points to its economic development; the text fragment; while the
following example ranges Russia among other countries: “飛行艇の製造企業がある国は、日本とロ
202 Asahi Shinbun, 14 September 2013.
52
シア、カナダの３カ国 だ。” (The three countries that produce flying boats are Japan, Russia
and Canada.)203, etc.
The elements like “母はロシア人です。”(Mother is Russian);　“「カラシニコフ」はロ
シア人の名前だ。”(Kalashnikov is the name of a Russian.) point out the nationality of a subject or
explain the meaning of world-known brand name.
Many elements with the lexeme “ ロ シ ア ” roshia in the predicate position refer to the
theme of sport: “決勝戦の勝者はロシアだ。”(The winner of the final match is Russia), etc.
The block is represented by 42 text elements.
2.1.4. The way of actualization of the concept “attributive + ロシア” roshia（ロシア roshia as
an object defined by an adjective/adjectival noun/relative clause）
Group 1. “attributive + ロシア” roshia (temporal features).
The attributives of this group have the temporal meaning: “ 帝 政 ロ シ ア ” teikoku roshia
(imperial Russia), “今日のロシア” kyō no roshia (Today's Russia), “新ロシア” shinroshia (new
Russia), “現在のロシア” genzai no roshia/ “近代的なロシア” kindaitekina roshia/ “現ロシア”
genroshia (modern Russia), “過去のロシア” kako no roshia (Russia of the past). In several cases
the attributives are formed by means of affixation: “ 新 ロ シ ア ” shinroshia, “ 旧 ロ シ ア 共 和 国 ”
kyūroshiakyōwakoku; or clipping: “帝政ロシア” teiseiroshia. The time of Russia is represented by
the Japanese newspaper as a one-way vector (horizontal axis), where various historical and
modern events are located from the left to the right.
Graphically the conceptual structure “the time of Russia” can be represented in the
following way:
Scheme 1.
"Time of Russia"
the past of Russia
Revolution
the present of Russia
collapse of the USSR
The October Revolution and the collapse of the USSR are the pivotal figures, which divide
the axis into 3 parts: imperial Russia (before the Revolution), soviet Russia (before the collapse of
the USSR) and modern Russia (after the collapse of the USSR). Further, the space between the
203 Asahi Shinbun, 18 September 2013.
53
two figures is united into the concept “former Russia”, while attributives “ 今日の” kyōno, “ 現在
の” genzaino, “今の” imano, etc. describe Russia after the collapse of the USSR. On the other
hand, the interconnection of the Russian past and the present is represented, for instance, by the
word combination “ソ連の後継国家ロシア”, which describes Russia as a country-successor of the
USSR.
Group 2. “attributive + ロシア roshia”(dimensional features). The attributives of this group
characterize Russia in terms of its dimensional features and its location: “広大なロシア” kōdaina
roshia (vast Russia), “世界一広大なロシア”sekaiichi kōdaina roshia (the biggest country in the
world Russia). The metaphor “ え ん え ん と 流 れ て い る ロ シ ア ” enento nagareteiru roshia
(endlessly flowing Russia) describes the country as something long and narrow (a river, a snake or
a road). The metaphor “北東アジアの中心に突き刺さるロシア” (Russia piercing the the centre of
northeast Asia) not only defines the location of Russia, but also classifies it as an Asian country.
The word combination “ 近 く て 遠 か っ た ロ シ ア ” (near far Russia) refers rather to the
psychological perception of Russia than to its geographical characteristics. The word combination
“政治亡命先のロシア” (the place of political exile Russia) locates Russia as a terminal point of
political emigration.
Group 3. “attributive + ロシア roshia” (social features).
The attributives of this group describe mostly:
1. Russian economy and society: “エネルギー資源輸出国であるロシア” (Russia which is
an exporter of energy resources); “ＬＮＧ輸出国のロシア”(the exporter of LNG Russia).
The natural metaphor “石油価格の高騰で潤ったロシア” (Russia, moist with soaring oil
prices), represents the country as soil. The metaphor “ 旧ソ連経済圏の再構築に動く ロシ
ア ” (Russia is moving towards the reconstruction of the Soviet economic zone) refers to
Russia as something moving towards the reconstruction of the Soviet economic block.
2. Military potential of Russia: “通常戦力で劣るロシア” (Russia is inferior in conventional
forces);
“米国と並ぶ核大国のロシア” (Russia equal to the US in its nuclear potential),
“ 世 界の 核の ９割 が集 中す る 米 国と ロ シア ” (90% of the world nuclear potential are
concentrated in the US and Russia), etc. In this subgroup the attributives tend to locate
Russia in a range of countries: as inferior in the non-nuclear war potential, as a equal to the
USA in the nuclear potential, etc.
3. Society: the attributive “ 貧 富 の 格 差 が 拡 大 し て い た ロ シ ア ” (Russia where the gap
between the poor and the rich has expanded) refers to the stratification of the Russian
society; the word combination “日本食ブームのロシア” (Russia, where Japanese cuisine
54
is very popular) describes its passion of the Japanese cuisine.
4. Victim: the attributives “悲惨なテロに苦しめられてきたロシア” (Russia, which has been
suffering from disastrous terrorism), “１２００人の負傷者が出たロシア” (1200 people
were injured in Russia) exemplify that Russia suffers both social disasters and natural
calamities.
Group 4. “attributive + ロシア roshia” (socio psychological features).
The attributives of this group refer to the perception of Russia, express the attitude towards
it. The most salient and frequent features within this group are Russian aggression, severity,
cruelty, fright and coldness: “こわもてロシア” kowamote roshia (frightening Russia), 過酷なロシ
ア kakokuna roshia (cruel Russia), “怖くて、寒いロシア” kowakute, samui roshia (scary cold
Russia). The anthropomorphous metaphor “ 日ソ中立条約を破って全千島を奪ったロシア。”
(Russia violated Soviet-Japanese Neutrality pact and stole all Kuril islands.)204 describes Russia as
a treacherous country, which violated Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact and stole like a criminal
Kuril Islands. The exponents of opinion of this kind are the journalists of Asahi Shinbun themselves
or elderly interviewees, carrying the notions about Russia formed in the Soviet period.
Young Japanese interviewees, who have the experience of the residence in Russia and
Russian interviewees describe it in a different way, for instance: “ まったく別のロシア” mattaku
betsu no roshia (Russia differing from the common negative opinion), “伝えるべきは等身大の「祖
国」のロシア”　(Russia which should be conveyed is life-size “homeland” Russia), etc.
Table 2.
Block “attributive + ロシア roshia”
n. Groups of attributives
Quantity (%)
1. social features
37.5
2. temporal features
26.5
3. socio psychological features
20.5
4. dimensional features
15.5
2.1.5. The way of actualization of the concept “ロシア　roshia ＋　postposition”
This group unites all word combination of the type “ ロシア roshia + postposition”, they are
distributed according to the features of the concept 'roshia', which are partly recorded in dictionary
entries and partly derived from a contextual meaning of a lexeme (often metaphoric) (state,
country/people, country/territory, soil, definite persons). In this case the meaning of a
postposition/suffix itself becomes metaphoric. As may be seen from the Table 3, the most frequent
204 Asahi Shinbun, 25 September 2013.
55
use is that of the postposition で de (26.5%), while 間 kan, まで made, 以外 igai (0.73%) are the
less frequent.
The meaning of the postpositions and suffixes themselves let us divide them into two big
groups:
1.
spatial/locative: で de, に ni, から kara, へ he, 以外 igai, まで made;
2.
expressing relation: と to, にとって nitotte, に対して nitaishite, について nitsuite, 間 kan,
向け muke.
Locative postpositions describe Russia as a certain locus, which have boundaries and
inside which something can be located: “ロシアにあるプーシキン美術館のコレクション” (the
collection of Pushkin museum located in Russia); something can be located outside these
boundaries: “ ロ シ ア 以 外 の 都 市 ” (cities outside Russia). Something can happen throughout
Russia within the boundaries: “モスクワなどロシア各地で開かれた”(was opened in Moscow and
throughout Russia); or outside them, excluding Russia from the range of actors: “欧州はロシア以外
からの調達を増やしている。”(Europe aim at the increase in supply from outside of Russia.) 205；
“米国は天然ガスの生産で０９年に ロシアを抜いて世界一になった。” (With the exception of
Russia the US has become the biggest producer of the natural gas in the world.)206
Russia can be perceived as a terminal point of a certain journey: “ ロ シ ア に 戻 る 計 画 ”
(plan to come back to Russia); “ロシアに来て、皆さんに会うのが夢でした。” (My dream is to
come to Russia and meet everyone.)207 or the point of departure: “ロシアから資金も人も流れこん
だ。” (Both people and fund flew from Russia.)208
Locative postpositions/suffixes may set spatial connections between objects, actions with
Russia as a certain locus, which in this case is understood as “a space or an object in regard to
which the location of an object (action, feature) and a kind of their interrelations (static, dynamic)
are defined”209. For instance, in the text fragment “ロシアからの安全な距離” (safe distance from
Russia) the relations between an object and the country consists in a certain “safe distance”; in “ロ
シア などユーロ圏外から大量の資金が流れ込んでいるキプロスの救済。” (the salvation of
Cyprus that consists in big sums of money flowing from Russia and other countries outside the
euro-zone.)210 the postposition か ら kara shows the direction of the money flow from Russia to
Cyprus. Postpositions から kara and へ he in “日本からロシアへの中古車輸出はピークの２００８
205 Asahi Shinbun, 23 July 2013.
206 Aera, 18 November 2013.
207 Asahi Shinbun, 12 December 2013.
208 Asahi Shinbun, 21 February 2013.
209 Maria VSEVOLODOVA, Evgeny VLADIMIRSKY, Means of expression of spatial relations in modern Russian,
Moscow, Russkiy yazik, 1992.
210 Aera, 15 April 2013.
56
年 に ５ ０ 万 台 を 記 録 。 (The peak of exports of second hand cars from Japan to Russia was
recorded in 2008 and came to 50.000 cars.) 211 define the direction the car export from Japan to
Russia, etc.
Postpositions と to, 間 kan, に 対 し て nitaishite express the relation of opposition
between two objects: “ロシアなどとの軍事バランスを維持する” (to maintain military balance
with Russia, etc.), “経済的にはギリシャやロシアと関係”(the Greece-Russia relations from the
economic point of view). The postposition に ni in word compositions like “ロシアに取り組みを求
める” (to ask efforts of Russia) or “幼い頃からロシアに触れてきた。”(from my childhood I came
into contact with Russia); is like postpositions と to, に対して nitaishite, 間 kan realize the “friend
of foe” opposition. The component that can be defined as “the existence of two subjects of a
communication act” is included in the meaning of these postpositions themselves: by means of
these postpositions an author of an utterance expresses their attitude (as to a partner or a rival,
enemy) towards an explicit participant of a communication act (Russia). In case of the sentence
“米英仏と、アサド政権を支えるロシアとの溝は深い。”(There is a big gap between Russia
supporting the regime of Assad, and the US, England and France.) 212 all the participants are
explicit, but the “friend or foe” opposition remains.
As the above-mentioned postpositions/suffixes the postposition にと って nitotte, realizes
the “fried of foe” category, but unlike them the vector of an attitude is directed from Russia to
objects, actions, features: “ ロ シ ア に と っ て は 競 争 相 手 に な る ” (It (the US) will become a
competitor of Russia); “ロシアにとっても中国の巨大市場は魅力” (Russia is attracted by huge
Chinese market).
The suffix 向け　muke adopts the sole meaning “intended for...”, “aimed at” in the context of
economic relationships between Russia and Japan: “ロシア向け中古乗用車の輸出” (the exports
towards Russia of second hand passenger vehicles); “ロシア向けが高関税で一気に９割減”
(high tariffs for Russia were reduced at once by 90%).
Table 3.
Group “ロシア　＋ postposition/suffix”
n.
postposition/suffix
Quantity of text elements (%)
1.
で de
26.5%
2.
に ni
24%
3.
と to
20.5%
4.
から kara
11%
211 Asahi Shinbun, 25 December, 2013.
212 Asahi Shinbun, 24 June 2013.
57
5.
へ he
4.5%
6.
にとって nitotte
2%
7.
に対して nitaishite
2%
8.
以外/外　igai/gai
2%
9.
向け muke
1.5%
10. について nitsuite
1.5%
11.
間 kan
0.73%
12. まで made
0.73%
13. を抜いて o nuite
0.73%
2.2. “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun” and words with the root ロ ro as means of
actualization of the concept “Russia”
In the second big group features of the concept are actualized:
1.
according to meanings of words fixed in dictionaries;
2.
according to meanings formed as a result of the real usage of lexemes in texts of the
analyzed newspaper.
2.2.1. Word-combinations “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun” as the means of
actualization of the concept
The word-combinations of the “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun” type are united
the Table 4 and are distributed into blocks (or into groups and subgroups) in compliance with the
lexical meaning of nouns:
1.
The designations of people:
•
one person: business/finance (number of units); defense; politics; plain man; others
(persons not included in any of above groups);
•
people of Russia (implying plural): government authorities; various professional groups;
business/finance; defence; politics; Russian population;
•
single persons: president of Russia; government authorities; finance; defense; politics; plain
men; professional groups;
2. Action designation: motion designation; constructive actions designation; destructive
actions designation; interaction designation.
3. Designation of the social realities sphere:
58
•
culture: common; mentality; history; education; arts; every day life; mass media;
•
government: common; foreign policy; governing bodies; laws, rules, regulations; other;
•
industry: common; designation of specific objects;
•
sphere of national security and military forces: common; dislocation; armament;
subdivision; activities; headquarters; fleet;
•
territory: administrative division terms; geography; landscape; natural phenomena, other;
•
economy: common, institutions; finance; infrastructure;
•
technologies: military technology and peace technologies.
4. Designation of anthropomorphous features: corporal; mental.
5. Time designation.
Table 4.
Word-combinations “ ロ シ ア
roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” as the means of
actualization of the concept.
n.
Word-combinations “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun”
1.
Word-combinations “ ロ シ ア
Quantity
roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” 56.5%
(designation of the social realities sphere)
2.
Word-combinations “ ロ シ ア
roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” 35.5%
(designation of people)
3.
Word-combinations “ ロ シ ア
roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” 6.5%
(designation of anthropomorphous features)
4.
Word-combinations “ ロ シ ア
roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” 1%
(designation of actions)
5.
Word-combinations “ ロ シ ア roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” (time 0.5%
designation)
The large number of definite groups in comparison with the lack of representation of others
indicates the importance of various facets of Russian realities for the Japanese newspaper, which
is expressed by heightened interest to definite persons or social spheres, geographical regions,
etc. and the lack of interest towards other spheres. For example, in the area of culture the sphere
of Russian cinema, Russian fine arts and design are almost absent and among “persons” Russian
film actors, directors, artists, designers, architects and others are almost not represented. The
Japanese newspaper rarely mentions such spheres as “Russian mass media”, “transport and
infrastructure”. On the other hand, such spheres like “national security and military forces”,
“president of Russia” representatives of “politics”, “government authorities”, “defense”, “business
and finance” are mentioned often and in a variety of aspects.
59
In the block “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun” “designation of people” the prevailing
groups are:
•
politics;
•
business and finance;
•
professional groups;
•
defense;
•
government authorities.
In the sub-block “ ロ シ ア roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” “designation of national
security and military forces” the biggest group represents “common terms” (that is words signifying
common terms and names of this social sphere's realities – total, 30) and “activities” (directed
towards Japan or, in some cases, other countries). The smallest groups in this category are
“subdivisions” and “headquarters”.
In the block “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun” concerning “culture” prevailing in a
quantitative sense groups are:
“mentality”;
•
•
“Russian daily life”;
•
“Russian history”;
Russian theatre, ballet in particular, is mentioned quite often.
The least number of
examples contains the group “education”.
The block “ ロ シ ア roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” concerning “government” unites
common terms and designations of Russian realities, such as “governing bodies” and “foreign
policy”.
In a quantitative sense, the dominant group of the block “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no
+ noun” “action designation” is “motion”.
In the block “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun” concerning “territory” the biggest
group is “geography”, which includes designations of geographical objects, located on the territory
of Russian Federation.
In the block “ロシア roshia/ロシアの roshia no + noun” concerning “economy” the most
numerous group are “common” and “finance”.
In the block “ ロ シ ア roshia/ ロ シ ア の roshia no + noun” “designation of people: single
persons: politics” the biggest number of examples represent the designation of the president of
Russia. The feature of the concept “president of Russia” reflects the dynamics of real events. The
past of Russia is expressed by the names Boris Yeltsin and Dmitry Medvedev: “２０１０～１１年
にメドベージェフ大統領” (Mdevedev who was the President in 2010-11), “メドベージェフ・前
60
ロ シ ア 大 統 領 ” (Medvedev, ex-President of Russia), the present and the future of Russia are
personified by the name of the working President Vladimir Putin: “極東開発を重視するプーチン大
統領” (President Putin, paying a lot of attention to the development of the Far East); who in his
turn, metamorphoses from the KGB officer (this period of time is described as defining the
personality of the president): “旧ソ連国家保安委員会（ＫＧＢ）出身のプーチン氏は国を裏切った情
報部員に対して冷徹だ。”(Being an ex-officer of the former Soviet Committee for State Security
(KBG) Putin shows cool-headedness towards the agent betrayed his country.) 213; to Prime-Minister:
“２０００年以降、大統領、首相、再び大統領と立ち位置を変えながら権力を維持するプーチン
氏” (Since 2000 V. Putin preserves his power while changing his status from president to primeminister, and again to president)214; and from the prime-minister to the president: “プーチン氏は昨
年大統領に復帰する際に、極東重視の方針を掲げた。” (When Putin came to the presidency last
year, he adopted Far East-oriented policy.)215
A lot of attention in texts concerning Vladimir Putin is given to the attempts to understand
the reasons of his decision, to the description of his intentions: “日本との関係強化を目指すプーチ
ン 大 統 領 ” (President Putin who aim at the strengthening of the relations with Japan.) 216. It is
plausible to assume that the big number of examples of the features “Putin's decisions” and
“Putin's intentions” can be explained by the essential interest of the neighbour country Japan
whose relationships with Russia are mostly dependent on these two things. On the other hand,
such feature of the concept “president of Russia” as “mental state” are less represented in texts of
Asahi Shinbun: “ プ ー チ ン 大 統 領 は 「 国 の 威 信 を か け て 成 功 さ せ る 」 と 意 気 込 ん で い
る 。 ” (President Putin is excited about “the increasing of the country's prestige and making it
successful”.)217
Further, in the description of Vladimir Putin and his actions the metaphor was used, based
on the transfer of measurement of a natural object (water) on the sphere of political strategies:
“ プ ー チ ン 氏 は 慎 重 な 瀬 踏 み に 入 っ て い る 。 ” (Putin has started careful measurement of
depths.)218.
The big group of word-combinations describing Russian president implies the existence of
the wide movement against him, opposition, political enemies: “ 反プーチンバンドに恩赦” (the
amnesty of anti-Putin band); “プーチン大統領への反対運動” (the movement against President
Putin); “ロシアのプーチン大統領の政敵” (enemies of Russian President Putin). “ロシアでは、
213 Asahi Shinbun, 13 December 2013.
214 Asahi Shinbun, 12 July 2013.
215 Asahi Shinbun, 13 December 2013.
216 Asahi Shinbun, 20 January 2013.
217 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
218 Asahi Shinbun, 20 June 2013.
61
プーチン大統領の政策を批判した女性ジャーナリストの殺害事件など、迷宮入りする事件が少な
く な い 。” (In Russia there are many unsolved cases, such as the case of a female journalist
murder, who was criticizing policies of Putin.) 219. Often the surname Putin is becoming a
component of the word-combination “プーチン政権” pūchin seiken (the regime of Putin): “プー
チン政権に打撃を与えようとする強い意志が伝わってくる。” (The strong will to give a blow to
Putin's regime has been conveyed.)220. Unlike the political power of Ukraine or France described by
the compositions “ウクライナ政権” ukuraina seiken (administration of Ukraine) and “フランス政
権” furansu seiken (administration of France), the lexeme 政権 seiken in the analyzed texts was
combined only with word “プーチン” pūchin, and never with “ロシア”roshia. Accordingly, it might
be supposed that current Russian political power is personified by a sole figure of the Russian
president in the world view of Asahi Shinbun.
In addition authors of the Japanese newspaper often use various metaphors in order to
describe Russian realities, recourse to comparisons or contrapositions of the Russian and the
Japanese lifestyle, social problems in order to level or to stress out the “friend or foe” dichotomy:
“ロシアのソチは街並みは伊豆や箱根を連想させる。”(The cityscape of Russian Sochi reminds
of Izu and Hakone.)221
The metaphor “ ロ シ ア の 遺 伝 コ ー ド ” roshia no iden kōdo (Russian genetic code) is a
complex formation, which includes several meanings, such as “Russian character”, “Russian
mentality”, “Russian inheritance”, something in the destiny, history of the Russian nation, peculiar
only to it and what is passed from generation to generation and constitutes the unique “Russia's
genetic code”.
“ ロ シ ア 人 の 魂 ” roshiajin no tamashī (Russian soul) is a metonymy, which describes
Russia as a live creature or a person, that has a soul and character (characteristics of a soul of
specific representatives of the Russian nation are unified and are risen to the category “Russian
soul” of the nation as a whole).
Describing Russia as a country Japanese authors sometimes refer to its unpredictability:
“予測不可能性。１９世紀のロシア詩人チュッチェフの詩「ロシアは頭では理解できない 」。” (The
unpredictability (of Russia). The poem “You can't understand Russia with your mind” of a Russian
poet of 19th century Tyutchev.)222, what in general reflects one of the most popular Russian autostereotype and one of the Japanese stereotypes about an unknown, scary and vague country.
Throughout the history of the USSR and post-soviet Russia it has always been important
for it to win in sports competitions in particular, herewith a kind of identification of sports
219 Asahi Shinbun, 22 February 2013.
220 Asahi Shinbun, 29 December 2013.
221 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
222 Asahi Shinbun, 24 February 2013.
62
achievements and victories with military, economic and political advantages was taking place. The
sport has always been important in the USSR and even after its collapse Russia is still seen in
Japan as a country of sport, wherein athletes are its representatives: “開催国のロシアは旧ソ連時
代から計５０個のメダルを獲得している大国だ。フィギュア大国ロシアの顔とも言えるのが、男
子のエフゲニー・プルシェンコだ。”(Starting from the Soviet period the host country Russia won
in total 50 medals. Evgeni Plushenko can be called the face of the figure skating “superpower”
Russia.)223.
The metaphor “ロシアの妖精”roshia no yōsei describes a Russian female tennis player
comparing it with a fairy: “ロシアの妖精。モデル顔負けの容姿も人気を集める。” (Russian elf.
She has a model look and also gained popularity.) 224, and reflects the stereotype about beautiful
Russian women. Apart from Russian beauties Japanese newspapers' readers are also interested
in the private life of renowned Russian athletes: “ＮＨＬのオベチキンとテニスのキリレンコが婚
約。”(Ovechkin from NHL and a tennis player Kirilenko are engaged.)225
The metaphor “経済成長の柱”　in “資源の輸出はロシアの経済成長の柱。”(The exports
of resources are pillars of Russia's economic growth.)226 describes Russian economic growth as
leaning against the “pillar of resources export” and representing Russian economy as a kind of
architectural construction. In fact, the energy industry as well as oil extraction and weapons
production are listed as three most important components of the Russian economy structure: “ロ
シアにとって、兵器はガスや石油などのエネルギーに次ぐ第２の主力輸出品だ。” (For Russia
weaponry is the second major export product after energy resources, such as gas and oil.)227
In the financial sphere the condition of Russian shares “intruding top ranking” share
markets, implying the drastic changes within the financial process in Russia, aggressiveness and
undesirability of such “behaviour” of shares: “ブラジル、ロシア、インド、中国のいわゆる「ＢＲ
ＩＣｓ」の新興４カ国の株式を投資対象としたタイプも、ランキング上位に食い込んできまし
た 。 ” (Shares of 4 emerging nations of “BRICs” also have become the object of investments,
encroaching upon the top ranks.)228
The metonymy “資源開発に沸く” shigen kaihatsu ni waku in “資源開発に沸くロシアのサハ
リ ン や 北 方 領 土 も 対 象 だ 。 ” (The (investment) object are among others Russia's Sakhalin,
boiling with the resources development and Northern Territories.)229 describes the energy sector or
the Russian industry. It is a complex expression, united according to the principle part is equal to
223 Asahi Shinbun, 15 December 2013.
224 Asahi Shinbun, 18 February 2013.
225 Asahi Shinbun, 3 January 2013.
226 Asahi Shinbun, 30 June 2013.
227 Asahi Shinbun, 7 May 2013.
228 Asahi Shinbun, 18 November 2013.
229 Asahi Shinbun, 8 January 2013.
63
the whole, wherein rapid “boiling” growth of energy industry is shifted to the whole region of
Sakhalin.
The business in Russia is described as being blocked for Japanese partners by the barrier
of language and the absence of trade traditions: “言葉や商習慣の壁が立ちはだかるロシアビジネ
ス 。 ” (Language barriers and business practices standing on the way of Russian business.)230
The lexeme “壁” kabe describes the state of impenetrability of Russian markets as they are seen
by the authors of Asahi Shinbun.
The political power of new Russia is described by the metaphor “誕生” tanjō and,
accordingly, is liken to a new-born baby: “新政権の誕生にあたり、タブーを破り、大胆な譲歩も伴
う方策を提案する。”(On the birth of the new political power (in Russia) the bold strategy of
concession is proposed.)231
2.2.2. Lexemes “ロシア人” roshiajin/“ロシアの人” roshia no hito/“ロシア系”roshiakei,
etc.” as means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'
The table 5 unites all detected cases of the word usage of the lexemes of “ ロ シ ア 人 ”
roshiajin type in the texts of Asahi Shinbun. In this case the meanings of words are defined by a
dictionary entries, and depend on the context only in the frame of them: (1. Broadly speaking,
Russians are the people who used to be the citizens of Russian empire, or Eastern Slavs
(geographical, ethnic references); 2. Russians are the people whose mother tongue is Russian. 3.
Russians constituted the biggest nation of the USSR232.
In the table 5 all the word-combination with “ロシア人”roshiajin are distributed into groups
according to the contextual meaning of the word. The scheme 2 illustrates the structure of relations
of all the meanings of this word:
Scheme 2.
230 Asahi Shinbun, 4 May 2013.
231 Asahi Shinbun, 18 January 2013.
232 Sekaidaihyakkajiten dainiban no kaisetsu, (www.kotobank.jp)
64
Russians
ethnic Russians
Russian population
specific personalities
specific groups of population
servicemen
public agents
sportsmen
interviewees
different occupations groups
scientists
artists
others
In the first line of the block prevails numerically the group “Russian population” (47); in the
second line “public agents” and “interviewees” are represented by 30 and 25 text fragments
accordingly. The results illustrate, first of all, the sphere of interests of the Japanese newspaper
concerning the topic of Russia. The focus on the Russian authorities topic is connected with the
particularities of Japan-Russia relationships and Kuril islands dispute, which is mostly associated
with Russia within the world view of Asahi Shinbun. The focus on military problematics is
connected with the Russian realities (acts of terrorism, wars in the Chechen republic). A Russian is
mostly represented or as a public person, or as an interviewee.
Table 5.
Lexemes of “ロシア人”roshiajin type as the means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'.
№
Meanings of “ロシア人 roshiajin”
Number (%)
1.
Population of Russia
35
2.
Public agents
18.5
3.
Interviewees
17
4.
Servicemen
12.5
5.
Specific persons
6
6.
Ethnic Russians
5.5
7.
Sportsmen
3.5
8.
Scientists
1
9.
Artists
0.5
10.
Others
0.5
65
2.2.3. Other words with the root “ロ” ro as means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'
The second group of word with the root “ ロ ro” illustrates the use of the word “ロシア語
roshiago”. The on-line dictionaries of modern Japanese language offer the following definitions of
this word: (1. The official language of Russia and of former Soviet Union. Nowadays it is spoken
by about 200 million people. 2. The Eastern Slav language belonging to the Indo-European
language family. During the Soviet period was spread among all nations as the common language.
3. The language, used officially not only in Russian Federation, but also in Belarus, Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan along with their national languages.233
The meaning “language of the Soviet Union” is absent within the discourse of the Japanese
newspaper, as the country USSR does not exist anymore. Moreover, the Russian language is
opposed to other Slav and, in particular, Baltic languages as the former official language of exSoviet republics. As Asahi Shinbun notices, after the collapse of the USSR the aspiration for the
independence of the former Soviet republics reflected the unwillingness to talk and speak in
Russian: “ラトビアでは昨年、ロシア語を第 2 の国語にするかどうかの国民投票があった。[...] 否
決されたが、ポリナさんは国民投票そのものが違憲だったと訴える。彼女は「ロシアは脅威だ」
とみる。国民はラトビア人約 59%に、ロシア系が約 28%だという。「こんな小国に二つ国語があ
れば、国は分裂してしまう」。”(The last year the national referendum, concerning the status of
Russian language as the second national language, was held in Latvia. [...] It was rejected, but
Polina (ethnic Latvian) claimed that the referendum itself was unconstitutional. She sees Russia as
a “threat”. Latvians constitute around 59% of the population, while ethnic Russians constitute
around 28% of it. “In such a small country the existence of 2 official language would only lead to
the split of the country”.)234
Other examples of the use of the lexeme “ロシア語 roshiago” include the following:
1. “ロシア語学校” roshiago gakkō, “ロシア語スクール” roshiago sukūru;
2. “「テレビでロシア語」”terebi de roshiago (the name of a Japanese TV programme);
3. “英語やロシア語、フランス語も堪能だった” ((he) was good at English and Russian,
and either in French);
4. “ ソ 連 全 土 か ら 原 子 力 の 技 術 者 を 集 め て つ く っ た 町 で 、 い ま も 共 通 語 は ロ シ ア 語
だ 。 ” (Russian language is still common in the town where nuclear engineers gathered
from all the territory of the USSR.) 235 The definition of Russian as a common language in
former Soviet republics expanded to Bulgaria.
5. “ダスヴィダーニヤは「さよなら」のロシア語” (“Da svidaniya” means “Good bye” in
233 Sekai no shuyō gengo ga wakaru jiten, (www.kotobank.jp)
234 Asahi Shinbun, 8 January 2013.
235 Asahi Shinbun, 30 July 2013.
66
Russian), where “Do svidaniya” is a name of a Japanese documentary.
Overall, this group includes 17 text fragments.
Another group illustrates the use of the word “ ロ シ ア 化 roshiaka”, formed by affixation,
which within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun is referred to the russification of the Kuril islands and
have negative connotations:
1. “第一に北方領土だ。確かに不法な占拠だが、４島のロシア化が進む今、一括返還に実現性
はない。”(First of all, Northern territories. Though, certainly, they were occupied lawlessly,
as nowadays four islands are becoming more and more Russian, it's impossible to get
them all back.)236 At the same time, the sentence illustrates the hard-edged position of the
Japanese newspaper concerning the islands: a territory can be russified only if it did not
belong to Russia and was occupied by it.
2. “遠のく北方領土　ロシア化。インフラ整備で「ロシア化」は進み、住民はロシア政府の後
ろ盾を強調する。”(The Northern territories becoming distant. Russification. Russification
in infrastructure development proceeds, and residents emphasize the backing of Russian
government.)237
The text fragments with this word are met in Asahi Shinbun 7 times.
It is necessary to separate out into a single group word-combinations, which contain the
word “ロシア roshia” and which are the realities of Russian political sphere. In this case, names of
parties include the name of the country, wherein they operate. The inclusion of the name of Russia
into names of parties can be considered a sort of political manifestation, which emphasizes the
belonging to Russia, fidelity to the national interests, etc. The name “「統一ロシア」”tōitsuroshia
（for instance, “与党「統一ロシア」”yotō tōitsuroshia - ruling party “United Russia”）was found in
the texts of Asahi Shinbun 4 times. The name “「公正ロシア」”kōsei roshia （for instance, “野党
「公正ロシア」” yatō kōsei roshia' - opposition party “A Just Russia” ）is represented by 2 text
fragments.
A particular case of using the name of Russia consists in the adjective “ ロシアン roshian”,
which is the transliteration of the corresponding English word. Of all the word-combinations with
this adjective, found in dictionaries (for instance, “ロシアンルーレット”roshianrūretto, “ロシアン
ティー” roshiantī, “ロシアンサーブル” roshiansāburu, “ロシアンブルー”roshianburū) only the
combination “ロシアンティー”roshiantī (Russian tea) is represented by Asahi Shinbun. Words of
foreign origin, in this case, stress out the particularities of Russian culture, differences between
Russian and Japanese teas, and, by doing so, express the “friend or foe” category. This word236 Asahi Shinbun, 3 September 2013.
237 Asahi Shinbun, 9 July 2013.
67
combination was found in 2 text fragments. Another example of the use of the adjective “ ロシアン
roshian”is its inclusion in the name of a pub: “ 「 ロ シ ア ン パ ブ ク レ ム リ ン 」 ” roshian pabu
kuremurin (Russian pub “Kremlin”). In a similar way, the use of the foreign adjective can be
explained by the intention to emphasize exoticism, otherness of the pub.
The last group in this block is the use of the root “ ロ ro” that stands for Russia in the
combinations like: “ 米 ロ リ セ ッ ト beiro risetto” (the US-Russia reset), “ 日 ロ 次 官 級 協 議 nichiro
jikankyū kyōgi” (Japan-Russia vice-ministers' discussion), “日ロ関係 nichiro kankei”(Japan-Russia
relations), “中ロの国境交渉 chūro no kokkyō kōshō” (negotiations over the China-Russian border),
etc. These word-combinations, used mostly in reports about coming summits, negotiations and
other events, can help understand which relationships of Russia are more important for Japan,
according to Asahi Shinbun. As is seen from the table 6, the most importance is given to JapanRussia relations, followed by its relations with China and the United States, Japan's rival and
strategic partner.
Table 6.
Word-combinations with the root “ ロ ” as the means of actualization of the concept
“Russia”.
№
Word-combinations
Number (%)
1.
日ロ nichiro
54.5
2.
中ロ chūro
21
3.
米ロ beiro
21
4.
英ロ eiro
3.5
An interesting feature of these compounds is that the component “ ロ”ro takes always the
second place. While is the compounds like “日ロ”nichiro or “米ロ”beiro the position of Russia is
a predictable and can be explained by the “Japan-centric” position of Japan (in the first case) or its
closeness to the US, the compound “ 中ロ”chūro (China and Russia) implies that geopolitically
China is near to Japan than Russia, despite the controversies of China-Japan relations.
2.3. Other word-combinations as means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'
In order to designate Russia the Japanese newspaper use not only word “Russia”, but also
other word-combinations, for instance:
1. “ 日本で ほとんど知られていなかった ソ連の児童 文学 ” (Soviet literature for children,
almost unknown in Japan);
68
2. “ペレストロイカ（改革）を進めたゴルバチョフ大統領が辞任し、ソ連は６９年の歴史に
幕を閉じた。”(When Gorbachev who advanced perestroika resigned, 69 years old history
of the USSR closed its curtain.)238
In the example 1 and 2 “ソ連 soren” country that doesn't exist anymore, the period in the
past of Russian history. In the second example the metaphor “ 幕を閉じた maku o tojita”(came to
an end, closed the curtain) was used to describe the state of Soviet Union as an ended theatre
play.
3. “旧ソ連国家保安委員会”（ＫＧＢ）(Former Soviet KGB);
4. “旧ソ連が３０年以上前に侵攻したアフガニスタンで、行方不明になっていたソ連軍兵
士の一人がアフガニスタンで生存しているのが確認された。” (It was confirmed that one
of the missing soldiers lives in Afghanistan, which former Soviet Union invaded more than
30 years ago.)239
The examples 3 and 4 illustrate the use of the lexeme “ ソ連 soren” with the prefix “ 旧”
(post). Post-Soviet in this context is used for designation of Russian realities: KGB still exists in
Russia (though with a different name), and Soviet war in Afghanistan is not only the history of
Russia, but also the part of its culture (literature on Afghanistan, veteran movements).
5.
“旧ソ連諸国” kyūsoren shokoku;
6.
“ソ連全土から原子力の技術者を集めてつくった町で、いまも共通語はロシア語
だ 。 ” (Russian language is still common in the town where nuclear engineers gathered
from all the territory of the USSR.)240
In the examples 5 and 6 the word “ ソ連 soren” (used with or without prefix “旧 kyū”) refers
to all countries of the former Soviet Union (including Russia), the language of the former Soviet
Union (Russian), its realities.
7.
“ソ連崩壊の混乱を経て経済が急成長する２００６年に誕生した 。”((The TV show)
was born in 2006 when Russian economy rapidly grew after overcoming the disorder
brought about by the collapse of the USSR.)241　8.
“ソ連崩壊後、ウクライナは常にロシアと欧州の間で揺れ動いてきた。”(After the
collapse of the USSR Ukraine has always been wavering between Russia and Europe.)242
9.
“ロシアがかたくなに「アサド退陣」に応じなかったのは、旧ソ連時代からのシリア
との戦略的関係があるからだ。”(Because of its strategic relations with Syria established
238 Asahi Shinbun, 25 November 2013.
239 Asahi Shinbun, 8 March 2013.
240 Asahi Shinbun, 30 July 2013.
241 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
242 Asahi Shinbun, 13 December 2013.
69
in the Soviet period, Russia stubbornly did not react to the “Assad resignation”.)243
10. “親日国なのに日本でのイメージは劣悪。ソ連崩壊から２１年たっても欧州に入れな
い。” (Though Russia is a pro-Japanese country, its image in Japan is bad. 21 year has
passed since the collapse of the USSR, but it is still not in Europe.)244
In the examples 7, 8 and 10 the compound “ソ連崩壊 sorenhōkai” was formed to designate
the moment in which Soviet Union came to an end. In the example 9 the compound “ 旧ソ連時代
kyūsoren jidai” refers to the Soviet period of Russian history, while prefix “旧” implies that described
events (strategic relations with Syria) still take place in modern Russia. These examples illustrate
Russian realities after the collapse of the USSR: economic disorder and growth, politics,
international relationships, Russian image in Japan.
11. “第２次大戦をめぐり、ロシアは前身のソ連の役割をファシスト国家のナチス・ドイ
ツと日本から、欧州とアジアを解放した立役者と位置づける。こうした立場は対外的なも
のだけでなく、戦後のソ連・ロシアの国民の価値観や愛国心の基礎にもなっている。”((In
the context of the Second World War, Russia positions the role of its ancestor USSR as one
of the country liberated Europe and Asia from fascist governments of Nazi Germany and
Japan. Not only this position is reviled in foreign affairs, but also became the base for the
world view and patriotism of Soviet/Russian people.)245
In the example 11 the Soviet Union is called the ancestor of Russia “ 前身のソ連 zenshin
no soren”, implying the interconnectedness and continuity between the USSR and Russia: indeed,
Russia takes up the role of its ancestor and Russian people values and patriotism were formed
under the influence of Soviet history.
12. “でも、周囲の大人たちのイメージは「怖い 国」(USSR) 。” (However, the image of
people around was that of “the scary country” (USSR).)246
In the example 12 the English abbreviation USSR and the expression 「 怖 い 国 」 kowai
kuni are used for referring to the Soviet Union. While 「怖い国」kowai kuni reflects to one of the
most wide-spread stereotype about Russia 247, and the use of a foreign word is the way of
expression of the “friend or foe” category, way of straying from the “scary” country.
13.
“ 巨 大 な 国 ” kyodaina kuni (huge country), “ 巨 大 国 家 ” kyodai kokka (huge
state), “ 世 界 を 揺 る が し た 超 大 国 ” sekai o yurugashita chōtaikoku (superpower that
shook the world), etc.
The examples of the group 13 refer to Russia, describing it in terms of its physical size: the
243 Asahi Shinbun, 19 June 2013.
244 Asahi Shinbun, 5 January 2013.
245 Asahi Shinbun, 28 December 2013.
246 Asahi Shinbun, 5 March 2013.
247「寒い、危ない、怖い」samui, abunai, kowai – cold, dangerous, scary
70
biggest country in the world, huge country that shocked the world.
14. “東欧の忍耐強い人々の国で若い僕の音楽は培われていった。” (In my youth my
music expertise was cultivated in the East European country of patient people.)248
The example 14 illustrates the use of the word “東欧” for the designation of the USSR as
the part of East-European world, and at the same time, describes it as the country of preserving
people (tolerating totalitarian regime and hostile conditions of life).
15. “五輪開催国” gorin kaisaikoku (Olympics host country), “核保有国” kakuhoyū koku
(nuclear power), “消費大国” shōhi taikoku (major country-consumer);
Another way of referring to Russia is describing it in terms of what it has (nuclear power),
what it consumes and what kind of events it is going to hold (the Olympics).
2.4. Set and frequency phrases as means of actualization of the concept 'roshia'
Many dictionaries of English language give the definition of the adjective “Russian”, for
instance, Russian – adj. a) relating to Russia, its people or its language: Russian grammar/the
Russian church b) the USSR: Russian defense policy/the Russian ambassador 249. Unlike in
English dictionaries, the definition of the attributive ロ シ ア ( の ) roshia (no) can not be found in
Japanese dictionaries for lexicographical reasons, e.g. the attributive forms of a noun are in many
cases added as a sub-entry of a main dictionary item (lemma) (either in the form N+no+N, or in the
form N+N), but it can be said that in corresponding word-combinations the texts of Asahi Shinbun
actualize to the full extent the first meaning of Longman Dictionary, while the second meaning –
due to the disappearance of the USSR itself – lost its relevance and is not actualized by Asahi
Shinbun in 2013. With the view of denoting “Soviet” lexeme “ソ連の soren no” is used, as opposed
to　”ロシアの roshia no”.
On the other hand, Japanese dictionaries define various set phrases, containing “ ロ シ ア
roshia” as an attributive.
These set phrases can be characterized by semantic interrelation; they play a role of terms,
denotations of specific realities (not always Russian) and reflect such areas like:
•
culture: ロシア美術館 roshia bijutsukan, ロシア正教会 roshia seikyōkai, ロシア国民楽派
roshia kokumingakuha, ロシアフォルマリズム roshiaforumarizumu, ロシア演劇 roshia
engeki,　ロシア美術 roshia bijutsu,　ロシア映画 roshia eiga, ロシア音楽 roshia ongaku,
ロシア文字 roshia moji, ロシア建築 roshia kenchiku;
•
history: ロシア革命 roshia kakumei, ロシアトルコ戦争 roshia toruko sensō, ロシア歴
248 Asahi Shinbun, 5 March 2013.
249 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,1992
71
roshia reki,　ロシア史 roshia shi, ロシア帝国 roshia teikoku, ロシアメシアニズム roshia
meshianizumu;
•
politics: ロシア共産党 roshia kyōsantō, ロシア化政策 roshiakaseisaku,　ロシアの選択
roshia no sentaku;
•
daily life: ロシア料理 roshia ryōri, ロシア紅茶 roshia kōcha;
•
artifacts and industries: ロシア 衛星 roshia eisei, ロシアの 天然ガ ス roshia no tennen
gasu;
•
natural world and animals: ロ シ ア ヒ マ ワ リ roshiahimawari, ロ シ ア ン ・ オ ッ タ ル カ
roshian ottaruka, ロ シ ア デ ス マ ン
roshiadesuman, ロ シ ア ン ブ ラ ッ ク ・ テ リ ア
roshianburakku teria, ロシアンサーブル roshiansāburu, etc.
Some notions about Russia, acquired in the result of “clash” with Russian culture, realities
and in the process of communications with Russian citizens were fixed in other languages (for
instance, Japanese) as set phrases or idioms (“ ロシアンルーレット” roshianrūretto) and their
further usage led to the necessity to “legalize” them, that is to fix them into dictionaries. In this way,
experience leads to a word, and a word makes native speakers of various languages think in
certain ways, gives notions of various objects of reality, which become stereotypes.
The groups of most frequent free word-combinations of type “ ロ シ ア ( の ) roshia (no) +
noun” were determined in the analysis of the block “ ロシア(の) roshia (no) + noun” as means of
actualization of the concept “Russia” within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun. These wordcombinations were united into semantic groups according to the area of reality they reflect.
The most frequent group is “authorities” and word-combinations like
ロシア政府
roshiaseifu, ロシアのプーチン大統領 roshia no pūchin daitōryō, ロシアのウシャコフ大統領補佐
官 roshia no ushakofu daitōryō hosakan, ロシアの外務次官 roshia no gaimu jikan, ロシアの外相
roshia no gaishō, ロシア上院 roshia jōin.
The second and the third most frequent groups are “politics” with word-combinations ロシア
化 roshiaka, ロシア の国家 予算 roshia no kokkayosan,　中 ロ関係 chūro kankei, ロシア国籍
roshia kokuseiki,　日ロ関係 nichiro kankei , etc., and “territory”, which includes word-combination
like ロシアの領土 roshia no ryōdo,　ロシア沖 roshia oki,　ロシア北部 roshia hokubu,　ロシア極
東 roshia kyokutō,　ロシア国境 roshia kokkyō.
Less frequent phrases are united into groups the following groups:
•
72
“economics and industries”:　ロシアの経済 roshia no keizai, ロシアの豊富な天然ガス
roshia no hōfuna tennen gasu, ロ シ ア の ガ ス 大 手 ( ガ ス プ ロ ム ) roshia no gasu ōte
(gasupuromu);
•
“defence”: ロシアの軍艦 roshia no gunkan,　ロシア軍事 roshia gunji,　ロシア海軍 roshia
kaigun,　ロシアのＴＵ９５爆撃機 roshia no TU95 bakugekiki,　ロシアの戦闘機 roshia no
sentōki ;
•
“media, culture and daily life”:　ロシアのテレビ roshia no terebi,　ロシアメディア(による
と) roshia no media(ni yoru to),　ロシア・ボリショイ劇場 roshia borishoi gekijō, ロシア
正教
roshia seikyō, ロシア民謡 roshia minwa, ロシア構成主義 roshia kōsei shugi, ロシ
アの作家 roshia no sakka, ロシアの家庭 roshia no katei, ロシアンティー roshiantī;
•
“professions”: ロシアの選手 roshia no senshu, ロシアの科学者 roshia no kagakusha, ロシ
ア人の学生 roshia no gakusei;
•
“Russian mentality and image”: ロシアのナショナリズム roshia no nashonarizumu, ロシア
のイメージ roshia no imēji, ロシアのおかしさ roshia no okashisa;
•
“education and science”: ロシアのモスクワ大学 roshia no mosukuwa daigaku,　ロシア科
学アカデミー roshia kagaku akademī;
•
“Russian time”: ロシアの世相 roshia no sesō, ロシアの将来 roshia no shōrai, ロシアの今
日, roshia no kyō, etc.
One of the characteristics of Asahi Shinbun's discourse is that the Japanese newspaper is
oriented towards social and political value of　its publications' topics.
This is one of the factors
defining the reasons of frequency of above-mentioned text unites: almost all groups of frequency
phrases belong to social or political lexicon, which is one of the characteristics of the journalistic
style in general.
On the other hand, the arrangement of these groups on the vertical axis, reflecting its
frequency in descending powers (Table 7.), is a part of linguistic wold-view of the Japanese. The
highlighting of the authorities and political spheres of the Russian life helps make conclusions
about kernel and peripheral areas of the concept 'roshia' in the Japanese linguistic world-view.
Russia is perceived, first of all, through its authorities and its politics, which can be explained by
the existence of unsettled territorial issues between Japan and Russia. “What we notice, remember
and reestablish in our memory […] and our selectivity of perception is motivated, among other
reasons, by our needs, which excite interest towards timely issues and their contextual topics”250.
250 Garin A. «The Cultural Roots of the Western Democracy in Comparison with the Russian Development», Rossia I
73
Due to its proximity, history and economic and cultural exchange territorially, Russia is
represented primarily by the frequency phrase “ ロシア 極東” roshia kyokutō (Russian Far East)
that prevails considerably over the frequency phrase “ ロシアのモスクワ” roshia no mosukuwa
(3). “ 北 方 領 土 ” hoppō ryōdo251 are mentioned in Asahi Shinbun's texts 37 times, but are not
mentioned into Table 7, as, though belonging to the territory of Russia, in the Japanese world-view
constitute a part of Japan, lawlessly occupied by Russia: “第一に北方領土だ。確かに不法な占拠だ
が、 ４島のロシア化が 進む今、一括返還 に実現性はない。 ” (First of all, Northern territories.
Though, certainly, they were occupied lawlessly, as nowadays four islands are becoming more
and more Russian, it's impossible to get them all back.)252
The Russian economy is represented, in terms of frequency phrases, by the phrase “ロシア
の天然ガス” roshia no tennen gasu (Russian natural gas). On one hand, being a kind of mineral
resources, it represents, along with Russian oil, the economy of the country throughout the world:
in the commodity structure of exports from Russia to Japan in 2013 the share of mineral resources
constituted 86%253. On the other hand, despite a growing share of Russian oil 254 in the total volume
of imports in Japan and its interest towards Russian natural gas, the phrase “ ロ シ ア の 石 油 ”
roshia no sekiyu is almost not represented by Asahi Shinbun in 2013. Presumably, it can be
explained by the shell gas revolution in the USA and reorientation of Russian exports: “ 米 国 の
シェールガス革命のあおりでロシアの天然ガスは欧州市場で供給が減り、日本はじめアジア市場への売り
込みも必要になっている。” (As under the influence of the shell gas revolution in the United States,
the supply of Russian natural gas in European markets has reduced, the hard selling in Asian
markets, first of all Japanese one, has become necessary for Russia.)255
It should also be stated that in the Japanese linguistic world-view Russia is perceived
(though not in the kernel) as a military state, holding an army and representing a potential threat.
Interestingly, texts of “Asahi Shinbun” pay more attention to the naval aviation of Russia (“ロシアの
ＴＵ９５爆撃機” roshia no TU95 bakugekiki,　”ロシアの戦闘機”roshia no sentōki) than to the
civil one (no frequency phrases were found).
The groups “media, culture and daily life”, “professions”, “mentality and image”, “education
and science”, “Russian time” and “Russian history” are noticeably less reflected in texts of Asahi
Shinbun and therefore constitute periphery of the concept “ロシア roshia”. It is worth noting that in
Zapad: dialog kultur, 8, 2000.
251 “the Northern Territories” in English translation or “Южные Курилы” (the South Kuril Islands) in Russian
252 Asahi Shinbun, 3 September 2013.
253 data the report “Trade and economic cooperation between Russian Federation and Japan”, by the Ministry of
Economic Development (http://www.ved.gov.ru/)
254 7%, according to Vedomosti, 23 April 2014 (http://www.vedomosti.ru/)
255 Asahi Shinbun, 23 February 2013.
74
the group “professions” the biggest share is held by the phrase “ ロシアの選手” roshia no senshu.
Asahi Shinbun indeed pays a lot of attention to the sports life in Russia which, on one hand,
anticipates the Olympic Games 2014256 and, on the other hand, reflects the stereotype of Russia
as a country of big sports victories.
Table 7.
Set phrases (according to dictionaries) and frequency phrases as means of actualization of
the concept 'roshia'.
Set phrases “ロシア roshia + noun” (according Frequency phrases “ ロ シ ア ( の ) roshia (no) +
to dictionaries)
Politics
noun” (according to “Asahi Shinbun”)
Russian authorities
ロシアの選択 (choice)
ロシアのプーチン大統領　(42) (Russian President
Putin)
ロシア化政策 (politics of Russification)
ロシア政府 (36)　(government)
ロシア共産党(Communist party of Russia)
ロシアの外相 (12) (Foreign Minister)
ロシアと中国　(Russia and China)
ロ シ ア の 外 務 次 官 (5) (Undersecretary in the
section for the International Relations)
ロシア極東と中国の貿易　(Far East Russia – ロシア上院 (3) (Upper House)
China trade)
ロシアの宇宙政策　(Space programme)
ロシアのウシャコフ大統領補佐官 (2) Presidential
aide
ロシア大統領選　(President election)
ロシアの宇宙庁
ロ シ ア の 宇 宙 庁 (2) (Russian Federal Space
Agency)
(Russian Federal Space Politics
Agency)
Economy, industries, artifacts
日ロ関係 (21) (Japan – Russia relations)
ロシアの天然ガス (natural gas)　ロシア化 (7) (Russification)
ロシア金融危機 (financial crisis)
中ロ関係 (5) (China – Russia relations)
ロシア危機 (crisis)
ロシア国籍 (3) (citizenship)
ロシア経済動向 (tendencies of economy)
ロシアの国家予算 (2) (national budget)
ロシア中央銀行 (Central Bank of Russia)
米ロリセット (2) (US – Russia reset)
Territory
ロシア衛星 (Russian satellite)
人口減少(ロシアの) (falling population)
Culture
ロシア極東 (19) (Russian Far East)
ロシアンルーレット(Russian roulette)
ロシア北部 (3) (the north of Russia)
ロシアの領土 (5) (Russian Territory)
ロシアのモスクワ (3) (Moscow, Russia)
256 held in Sochi, Russia
75
ロシア・バレエ団 (Russian ballet troupe)
ロシア美術館 (Russian art museum)
ロシア沖 (2) (open sea)
ロシアフォルマリズム (Russian formalism)
ロシア国境 (2) (national border)
Economics
ロシア演劇 (Russian drame)
ロシアの経済 (12) (Russian economy)
ロシア美術 (Russian arts)
ロシアの天然ガス (7) (natural gas)
ロシア映画 (Russian cinema)
ロシア企業 (5) (Russian companies)
ロシア正教会 (Russian orthodox church)
ロシアのガス大手 (ガスプロム) (3) (Russian big
company)
ロシア建築 (Russian architecture)
ロシアビジネス (2) (Russian business)
ロシア音楽 (Russian music)
ロシア中央銀行　(2) (Central Bank of Russia)
Defence
ロシア文字 (Russian literature)
ロ シ ア 東 欧 学 会 (The Japan Association for ロシア軍　(6) (Russian troops)
Russian and East European Studies)
ロ シ ア 史 研 究 会 (Japanese Society for the ロシア海軍 (4) (Russian navy)
Study of Russian History)
ロシア国立交響楽団
(Russian state ロシア軍事 (3) (military affairs)
symphony orcherstra)
ロシア戦勝記念日 (Russian Victory day)
Mentality
ロシアの兵器 (2) (weapons)
ロシアメシアニズム (missionism)
ロシアの軍艦 (2) (battleship)
ロシアナショナリズム (nationalism)
ロシアのＴＵ９５爆撃機 (2) (bomber TU95)
History
ロシアの戦闘機 (2) (fighter aircraft)
ロシア革命 (Russian revolution)
ロシアトルコ戦争 (Russo – Turkish war)
ロシアの情報機関(2) (intelligence agency)
Media, culture and daily life
ロシア歴/ ロシア史 (Russian history)
ロシアメディア(によると) (5) (Russian media)
ロシア帝国 (Russian empire)
ロ シ ア の ボ リ シ ョ イ 劇 場 (5) (Russian “Bolshoi
ロシアの兵隊 (2) (soldiers)
theatre”)
ロシアポーランド戦争 (Russo – Polish war)
ロシア民謡 (5) (folk songs)
Daily life　ロシア正教 (4) (Russian orthodox)
ロシア犂 (Russian plow)
ロシアの作家 (4) (Russian writer)
ロシア紅茶 (Russian tea)
ロシアのテレビ (3) (Russian television)
ロシア料理 (Russian cuisine)
ロシア構成主義 (2) (Russian constructivism)
Natural world and animals ロシアの家庭 (2) (Russian house)
ロシアヒマワリ(Russian sunflower)
ロシアンティー (2) (Russian tea)
ロシアン・オッタルカ (Russian terrier)
Professions
ロシアンブルー (Russian blue (cat))
ロシアの選手　(6) (Russian sportsmen)
76
ロシアン・ヨーロピアン・ライカ(Russian-
ロシアの科学者 (3) (Russian scientists)
European Laika)
ロシアン・トイ・テリア(Russian toy terrier)
ロシア人の学生 (2) (Russian students)
ロ シ ア ン ブ ラ ッ ク ・ テ リ ア (Russian black Mentality and image
terrier)
ロシアデスマン (Russian desman)
ロシアのイメージ (3) (Russian image)
ロシアンサーブル (Russian sable)
ロ シ ア の ナ シ ョ ナ リ ズ ム
(2) (Russian
nationalism)
ロシアのおかしさ(2) (ridiculousness of Russia)
Education and science
ロシア科学アカデミー (4) (Russian academy of
sciences)
ロシアのモスクワ大学 (2) (Moscow University)
Russian time
ロシアの将来 (3) (Russian future)
ロシアの世相 (2) (phases of life of Russia)
ロシアの今日 (2) (Russia's today)
Russian history
ロシア革命　(3) (Russian revolution)
ロシアの歴史 (2) (Russian history)
2.5. Realization of stereotypes on Russia within the discourse of the newspaper Asahi
Shinbun
The study of the concept 'roshia' in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun presumes that cultural
stereotypes about Russia can be a part of a structural element of the concept. In this case
stereotypical notions about Russia serve as a “threshold” of the concept. Concept is a wider
construction as it also includes encyclopedic knowledge, it is realized into free associations
(predictable or not). On the other hand, stereotype is “more limited, as it represents a mental
image-notion and its verbal framework; a stereotype in the process of its “creation” undergoes
certain minimization and is realized in predictable associations”257.
An image of any country exists in the consciousness of a native speaker of some language
as a certain stereotypical notion, for instance, Russia is the Motherland, Russians, openness,
generosity, unpredictability, snow, winter, matreshka, birch, vodka, caviar, ballet 258. For instance, an
author of the Japanese newspaper, describing his departure for Russia, points out that most
257 KRASNYH, Ethnoc psycholinguistics and cultural linguistics: lectures.
258 TER-MINASOVA, Language and inter-cultural communication.
77
questions he was asked by his compatriots concerned Russia's cold: “ 「どんな暖房を使ってる
の？」「トイレはどうしてるの？」と、続々と質問が寄せられた。”(I was successively asked
questions like “What kind of heating do they use?”, “How will you go to the toilette?) 259. “昨春、ウ
ラジオストク支局を開設したばかりで、ロシア極東ならではの土地を紹介したいと考えた。ロシ
アと聞いて、まず思い浮かべるのは「寒さ」。”(The last spring, when they opened the branch
office in Vladivostok, I was thinking of introducing the most distinctive places of the Russian Far
East. When you hear of Russia, the first thing it reminds you of is “cold”) 260.
Russia is described as a backward country, lacking medical facilities “like in Japan” and
appreciating second hand Japanese cars more than proper ones. For instance: “日本のように設備
が整った医療機関がないため、高度な治療を受けるには、日本や韓国に行く必要があります。健
康 診 断 も 、 き ち ん と 受 け る よ う 心 が け て い ま す 。 ” (As medical institutions (in Russia) lack
medical equipment like in Japan, Russians go to Japan or Korea in order to get an advanced
diagnosis, they also aim these countries in order to undergo precise physical examination)261.
Daily life is another sphere often being stereotyped, as daily life in particular is exceptionally
national sphere, characterizing a whole nation. For instance, though not so many modern Russians
drink vodka, speaking of Russia vodka is still one of its symbols: “ロシアと言えば、ウオツカが有
名です。” (Speaking of Russia, its vodka is famous) 262. Two other symbols of Russia are black
tea and home-made jam, without fail presenting on a Russian table even in the time of economic
disorder: “モスクワに留学していたとき、ロシア人家庭にホームステイしました。ソ連崩壊の翌年
で食糧事情の悪いころです。それでも、毎日の紅茶には小皿に盛られた自家製ジャムがいつも添
えられていました。”(When I studied in Moscow, I stayed in a Russian house. It was one year
after the collapse of the USSR and the food situation was bad. And yet, every day black tea was
always accompanied by a small dish with home-made jam)263.
The Russian table (with obligatory vodka, tea and rye bread), accompanied by music, is
described as a centre of daily communications in Russia: “テーブルを囲んでお茶やウオツカを飲み、
黒パンにチーズやハムをのせたオープンサンドを食べた。談笑の合間に必ず誰かが楽器を弾いた。
楽器の音色が流れると、途端に空気がロマンチックになった。” (We used to sit around a table,
drink vodka or tea and eat rye bread and cheese or ham open sandwiches. In the breaks in
friendly conversations somebody would surely play a musical instrument. With the flaw of sounds
of music, the atmosphere would become romantic) 264. The stereotype in this case reveals its
259 Asahi Shinbun, 5 December 2013.
260 Ibidem.
261 Asahi Shinbun, 13 December 2013.
262 Asahi Shinbun, 14 November 2013.
263 Asahi Shinbun, 15 February 2013.
264Asahi Shinbun, 14 December 2013.
78
positive aspect: drinking vodka is associated not only this alcoholism, but also this romanticism and
friendly communications.
Stereotypical notions about Russian soul and character features are realized in wordcombinations like “ ロ シ ア の 魂 roshia no tamashī ”(Russian soul), “ ロ シ ア 人 の 血 roshia no
chi”(Russian blood), and in the following fragments of text:
•
Concerning Russian mentality, A. Bukh in his “Japan's national identity and foreign policy:
Russia as Japan's 'Other'” has argued that similar to the bipolarity of R. Benedict's
representation of Japan, “Russia in the Japanese sociocultural discourse also has a split
personality, in which “plainsman character” struggles with the “forest” one. The first one is
characterized by such negative qualities as extremism, hedonism and the aspiration for
freedom from any power by any cost. “Forest character” is characterized by taciturnity,
moderation and tolerance”265. The following text fragment illustrate this notion on the
example of the class struggle in Russia: “有力紙コメルサントは、背景には、「ムチで国民
を統治し続けたい」今日の支配層と「自分の力で国の運命を担いたい」市民層との対立が
ある、とした 。”(According to the influential newspaper “Kommersant” in the background
(of the fight for Stalin's re-evaluation) there is a desire of the governors to rule the people
by means of a whip and a desire of people to take responsibility for the proper country's
destiny)266.
•
The stereotype of coldness and darkness of Russia as a country is transferred to its
people's character: “正直に言えば、寒くて暗くて怖い国。人は冷徹で本当に血が流れて
いるのか。そんな印象です。” (To tell you the truth, it is a cold, dark and scary country.
People are cool-headed and I ask myself whether their blood really flows. This is my
impression of them)267. “２７歳の時に一人旅行をした時のソビエト国家の個人への異常な
締め付け、国境での人々の敵対心を含んだ顔の暗さ。”(When I was 27 I went alone (to
Russia). At that time the Soviet state exerted inexorable pressure on its citizens and faces
of people on the border were full of darkness and hostility)268.
•
Coinciding with the auto-stereotype of Russia as a country of great culture, Russians are
described as its product, absorbed fruits of its literature and schooling system: “ロシアでは
国民的作家の作品が子どもの頃から広く教えられ、何世代にも共有されている。そうした
共通認識があってこそ豊かな人間性は育まれる。” (In Russia they start reading works of
national writers from the childhood, and so all generations share the same knowledge. It is
265 BUKH, Japan's National Identity and Foreign Policy Russia as Japan's 'Other'
266 Asahi Shinbun, 17 April 2013.
267 Asahi Shinbun, 12 May 2013.
268 Asahi Shinbun, 5 March 2013.
79
this common understanding which makes rich humanity raising possible) 269. “ロシロシア人
は基礎教育がしっかりして優秀な人材が多い。” (Among Russians many are capable
people of good basic education)270.
•
One of the Japanese stereotypes about Russia is that its features do not change with time.
Indeed, modern Russia is the successor of the USSR and there is no difference between
Soviet and Russian people's mentalities, “they are all represented as the same
unchangeable “Other”271. According to the following text passage Russians and the Soviet
share the same world view based on the victory over Germany and Japan: “第２次大戦を
めぐり、ロシアは前身のソ連の役割をファシスト国家のナチス・ドイツと日本から、欧州
とアジアを解放した立役者と位置づける。こうした立場は対外的なものだけでなく、戦後
のソ連・ロシアの国民の価値観や愛国心の基礎にもなっている。”(In the context of the
Second World War, Russia positions the role of its ancestor USSR as one of the country
liberated Europe and Asia from fascist governments of Nazi Germany and Japan. Not only
this position is reviled in foreign affairs, but also became the base for the world view and
patriotism of Soviet/Russian people)272.
•
Finally, in several cases Russians are described as members of criminal organizations (in
this case in a book reviewed by Asahi Shinbun): “ロシアの犯罪組織の幹部でマネーロンダ
リングの専門家であるディマからメッセージを託されたペリーは、英国諜報（ちょうほ
う ） 部 に 接 触 す る 。 ” (Perry got a message from Dima, the leader of a criminal
organization and money-launderer, and contacted English intelligence)273.
In her monograph “Language and inter-cultural communication” S. Ter-Minasova has
written about the connection between language and ideology and has described how languages
form ideologies of their native speakers. Since 1992 until 2000 the author had been conducting a
research in the perception of Russia and Russians by Russian students. In the table 8 the features
of national Russian character according to Russian students 274 are confronted with ones, according
to the texts of Asahi Shinbun.
Table 8.
National character: autostereotypes and heterostereotypes.
№
1.
Features of national Russian character, Features
of
national
character,
according to Russian students
according to Asahi Shinbun
The national spirit, Russian soul
ロシアの魂 roshia no tamashī (Russian soul)　269 Asahi Shinbun, 16 October 2013.
270 Asahi Shinbun, 11 September 2013.
271 BUKH, Japan's National Identity and Foreign Policy Russia as Japan's 'Other'
272 Asahi Shinbun, 28 December 2013.
273 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
274 TER-MINASOVA, Language and inter-cultural communication.
80
Russian
2.
Love for Motherland
3.
Emotional, sentimental
愛国心 aikokushin (patriotism)
ロマンチック romanchikku (romantic),　センチ
メンタル senchimantaru (sentimental)
4.
Patient
5.
Generous, hospitable
忍耐強い nintaidzuyoi (patient)
優秀な人材 yūshūna jinzai (excellent person), 気
前のいい kimae no ii (generous)
6.
Talkative, open, kind
愛 想 の 良 い aisonoyoi (sociable), 陽 気 yōki
(cheerful), 冷徹 reitetsu (cool-headed),　無愛想
buaisō (unsociable), 鬼 よ う な 形 相 oni yōna
keisō (devil-like face, angry)
7.
Puzzling, unpredictable
不可能性 fukanōsei (unpredictability),　ワイルド
wairudo (wild)
8.
Fools, wicked, narrow-minded
おかしい okashii (ridiculous), つまらん tsumaran
(foolish)
9.
Gloomy, fussy, the mentality of a mob
10.
Melancholy, inaccurate, light-minded
暗い kurai (gloomy)
悲しい kanashii (sad)
In this way, national Russian autostereotype about the Russian as a carrier of the national
spirit, mysterious soul and particular character is not dissimilar from the stereotypes of the
Japanese print media authors about the Russian character. Hence, many Russian autostereotypes
were projected in the outer world, including Japan. For instance, both the Japanese and Russians
consider Russians sentimental and patient, both notice their love for Motherland, unpredictability
and sadness. On the other hand, the group of stereotypes “talkative, open, kind” does not find its
full equivalent in the Japanese texts, on the contrary, it bears features of bipolarity: affable and
cheerful, but at the same time, unsociable, cool-headed and angry. Both Russian and the
Japanese notice Russian foolishness and darkness, but, while for Russians these are innate traits
independent from historical circumstances, for the Japanese Russian foolishness and angriness
have a strong connection with historical context: behaviour of Russian soldiers in internment
camps, in Korea, etc.
S. Pavlovskaya has noticed that a common idea of exceptional Russian religiousness
transformed over time, for instance, in 1860 - 70 th it was evaluated as the proximity to God, in
1880th and later as extremism and conservatism.275 Asahi Shinbun does not have a definite
275 PAVLOVSKAYA, Russia and the USA. Issues of intercultural communication
81
standpoint on the Russian church, but stresses out its importance from different points of view:
•
The church became necessary after 70 year of atheism, as means of salvation in the
situation of extreme crisis: “１９９１年のソ連崩壊のあと、ロシア社会に空前の宗教ブーム
が起きる。政治への絶望と宗教への期待が表裏の関係だ。” (After the collapse of the
USSR in 1991 Russia witnessed unprecedented boom of religion. Its reasons lie in
connection between the distrust towards politics and hopes upon religion)276.
•
The national identity and patriotism are presented in the connection of the Orthodoxy “ ロシ
ア正教やそれを取り巻く環境にも、「ろくでなしのロシア！」が浮かびあがるが、実はこ
の語には「強烈な愛国心」が宿っていると気づく。” (“Good-for-nothing Russia!” exists in
the environment of the Russian church, but in fact this word reflects fiery patriotism of
Russians)277.
•
Asahi Shinbun notices the interconnectedness between the Russian church and the
government: “プーチンという指導者がなぜ受けいれられているか、相互に利用し、利用さ
れあう関係で肥大化していくロシア正教の存在を司祭から庶民までの証言を通して、読者
に 納 得 せ し め る 。 ” ((The book) will explain to readers why such leader as Putin is
accepted and the state of the Russian Orthodox church swelling of the mutual use with
Putin though the testimonies from ones of common people to ones of priests).278
Several conclusions can be made based on the analysis of the material.
The use of stereotypes for perceiving own/foreign country is common for both Russian and
for Japanese linguistic consciousness.
It can be supposed that the mass media constitute one of core means of exerting influence
on the public opinion of various social groups by means of a stereotype. Till recently collective
consciousness was formed by spreading a stereotype and by means of a stereotype existing
already among the people. The stereotype is based and is hold by prejudices, way of life,
experience of social relations in a society, opinions of social groups. Habits, stereotypes, values
are rooted into collective subconsciousness of the mankind. All these things are common or similar
for most people in a society.
Stereotypes about Russia spread by the Japanese newspaper have many points in
common with Russian autostereotypes. Apparently, there are stereotype carrying “above-cultural”
character: they appear in a culture (in this case in the Russian culture) and then spread and “live”
beyond national borders without undergoing significant changes. For instance, the myth of the
mysterious Russian soul, unpredictable Russian character and the particular Russian history
migrate from one culture to another, being a simple and convenient way of explanation
276 Asahi Shinbun, 28 April 2013.
277 Asahi Shinbun, 7May 2013.
278 Asahi Shinbun, 28 April 2013.
82
incomprehensible, from the viewpoint of another nation, phenomena of Russian realities.
2.6. Realization of the “friend of foe” category within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun
The study of how one country is perceived in the eyes of a different country inevitably leads
to the necessity to examine the realization of the “friend or foe” category in the analyzed texts.
In order to contrast countries and divide them into “friends” and “foes” authors often use the
principle of antithesis in the texts of Asahi Shinbun: Russia and Russians are contrasted with other
nations. For instance, Russia is contrasted with Giorgia by means of prefixes 親 shin (pro-) and
反 han (anti-): “親欧米・反ロシア路線を強権的に進めたサアカシュビリ大統領の政権下で拘束さ
れたが、昨秋の国会総選挙で野党連合が大統領与党を破って政権を事実上奪取し、恩赦が実現し
た 。 ” (During the rule of President (of Giorgia) Saakashvili, who followed pro-American and
European and anti-Russian policies on the state level, they (people who supported Russia) were
restrained, but after the last autumn the opposition alliance smashed the ruling party and took
back the power, they were pardoned)279; “南カフカスでは２００８年の北京五輪直前に、親米・反
ロシアのグルジアが南オセチアを攻撃し、ロシアは軍事介入に踏み切った経緯もある。” (In
2008, just before the Olympic games in Beijing, in South Caucasus pro-American and anti-Russian
Giorgia attacked South Ossetia and Russia also did a military intervention) 280. According to the
Japanese newspaper Russia and Giorgia had been rivals during the rule of Saakashvili on political
and military levels. It can be supposed, that Asahi Shinbun sees Giorgia as a victim of expansionist
policies of Russia and hence somewhat similar to Japan: “ロシアが独立を承認した南オセチアとア
ブハジアは、グルジアの面積の２割を占める。ロシア側がフェンスなどを設け、「国境」として
固定化しようとする動きが進む。”(After Russia recognized the independence of South Ossetia
and Abkhazia, the area of Giorgia became twice as smaller. Creating the fence Russian side is
trying to deepen the immobilization of the so-called national border) 281. In this case the lexeme 側
(side), which semantics contains the component of the two side opposition actualizes the “friend or
foe” opposition, while the expression “so-called national border” shows negative attitude towards
Russian policies.
Another example is the opposition of Russia and the USA: “政治では角突き合わせがちなロ
シアと米国” (Russia and the USA who tend to quarrel constantly in the political sphere) 282. “米国
は日本へのシェールガスの輸出も検討しており、実現すれば、ロシアにとっては競争相手にな
る。”(The USA is examining the possibilities of exporting shell gas in Japan, and if this plan fulfills
279 Asahi Shinbun, 15 January 2013.
280 Asahi Shinbun, 21 January 2013.
281 Asahi Shinbun, 19 February 2013.
282 Asahi Shinbun, 15 February 2013.
83
it will become a competitor of Russia) 283. Words “ 角突き合い tsunotsukiai” (constant quarreling)
and “ 競争相手 kyōsō aite” (competitor) indicate constant opposition of two countries on political
and economic levels. The postpositions like から kara (from), に対して nitaishite (towards), 間 kan (between)
and prefixes like 反 han (against), 対 tai (towards) are often used as lexical markers of an
opposition. Their semantics presumes that they are used to indicate opposition, comparison,
demonstration of confrontation of two objects, wherein “the degree of confrontation may vary
depending on the use of these postpositions”284.
For instance, the prefix 反 han represents the highest degree of the “friend or foe”
opposition, as in above-mentioned examples (“親米・反ロシアのグルジア” shinbei, hanroshia
no gurujia), “friends” in texts of Asahi Shinbun are Europe, the USA and others who are not Russia
and its people.
The postposition 間　kan (between, for instance, relationships between two countries) is also
used in order to indicate opposition, confrontation, but the intensity of “friend or foe” opposition is
than in case of 反 han: “日ロ間では首脳の公式訪問が絶えて久しい。これを機に首脳対話を活性
化させ、北方領土問題の解決と両国関係の進展へとつなげたい。” (Since long there has been no
official visit between Japan and Russia. It would be preferable to link the official visit and the
activation of countries' leaders' dialogue in order to settle the territorial issue and deepen the
relationships between two countries)285. “米ロ間に協定がない” (There is no agreement between
Russia and the USA)
The division into “friends” and “foes” is inherited in the postposition/prefix 対 (towards) and
is intensified by words “外交” gaikō (diplomacy), “政策”
seisaku (strategy): the existence of a
certain strategy towards another state implies the oppositional status of that state: “ロシアに対し、
中 国 へ の 武 器 輸 出 を 抑 制 す る よ う 働 き か け た 。 ” ((The USA) has started working on the
prevention of the export of Russian weapons in China) 286; “首相は対ロ外交を重視するが、領土
問題の扱いに悩みそうだ。”(The Prime Minister pays serious attention to the diplomatic strategy
towards Russia, but the settlement of the territorial issue remains troublesome) 287.
Russia also has an internal enemy: “ロシア連邦に属する北カフカスは、１９９０年代に独
立を求めて戦ったチェチェン共和国を抱え、イスラム系武装勢力のテロが絶えないダゲスタン共
和国もある。” (In the North Caucasus belonging to Russia there are Chechnya, demanding its
283 Asahi Shinbun, 22 March 2013.
284 SANTSEVICH, Modeling of world-views on the basis of bilingual corpus of journalistic texts.
285 Asahi Shinbun, 23 February 2013.
286 Asahi Shinbun, 5 May 2013.
287 Asahi Shinbun, 11 September 2013.
84
independence and fighting for it (with Russia) and the republic Dagestan with its never-ceasing
terror of Islamic armed groups)288. The opposition of Russia and two republics as the opposition of
“friends” and “foes” is expressed by the word “戦った”tatakatta.
The postposition か ら kara (from) also expresses the relation of opposition between two
sides, when in a text there is another lexical marker with the semantics of alienation, for instance:
“ロシアからも人が逃げた” (People escaped from Russia too); “ロシアからの安全な距離” (safe
distance from Russia).
The introduction of foreign words actualizes the “friend or foe” opposition, because a foreign
text is a linguistic code of a different, “Other” culture. According to N. Santsevich, the introduction
of foreign words is caused by the following reasons:
1.
“foreign words give a particular flavour to events, make recepient remember where an
action takes place”;
2.
in order to veil literal sense;
3.
in order to attract attention to a thing expressed in a foreign language;
4.
in order to explain realities which cannot be translated into own language: “グラスノスチ”
gurasunosuchi,　”ペレストロイカ” peresutoroika289.
In this way, Japanese language speaker is considered a “friend” and a foreign (Russian)
language speaker is a “foe”.
In the texts of Asahi Shinbun Russian words are written in katakana and are followed by a
translation or an explanation of the core meaning:
1. “ ヤポンスキー（ 日本人）テン ノウヘイ カ　バーンジャーイ」と、 戦死 のま ねをし
た 。 ” (He (a Russian soldier) shouted “Yaponskiy (the Japanese), tennouheika” and
behaved as if he was dying in action290). In this case not only the word “Japanese” was
written in Russian, but also the Japanese word “ 天 皇 陛 下 tennouheika”(His Majesty the
Emperor) was “translated” and written in katakana, when used by a “foe” - Russian soldier
in an internment camp. Having negative connotations, these words perform a frightening,
terrifying function;
2. “ペレストロイカ（改革）を進めたゴルバチョフ大統領が辞任し、ソ連は６９年の歴史に
幕 を 閉 じ た 。 ” (When the President Gorbachev, who promoted Perestroika (reforms)
resigned, the 69 years history of the Soviet Union came to its end) 291. The word Perestroika
was not translated into Japanese as a specific Russian historical reality, which has no
parallel in history of Japan.
288Asahi Shinbun, 16 December 2013.
289 SANTSEVICH, Modeling of world-views on the basis of bilingual corpus of journalistic texts.
290 Asahi Shinbun, 18 December 2013.
291 Asahi Shinbun, 25 January 2013.
85
3. “カスチョールはロシア語でたき火の意。たき火に人が集まり温められるように豊かな共
感の輪が広がればとの思いを込めた。”(Kastyor means in Russian bonfire. I was thinking
how good it would be to gather into a ring of deep sympathy around the bonfire 292). The
word kastyor is not translated into Japanese as expressing a notion of a specific Russian
cultural reality: walking-tours and songs around the fire, popular in Russia.
The word
performs the function of giving somewhat “Russian” flavour to the situation.
S. Sakhno has noticed that “in the world of a speaker, the world of “Self” objects must have
firmly fixed names. For this reason the fact of denotation is usually not underlined. On the other
hand, in the world of “Other”, where everything is nondiscrete and uncertain, the attribution of
names to objects is relative. For this reason it is necessary to specify the relation between an
object and its denotation”293.
Conclusions to the chapter II
1. According to the distributional analysis of the lexeme “ロシア roshia” with verbs, nouns,
adjectives and postpositions conclusions can be made concerning the core semantic categories
(classifiers), which categorizes the concept 'roshia' in one way or another. Categorization of Russia
takes place by means of the following categories and features:
•
existential: features of existing; having a quality; having a form/structure; dimensional
features;
•
of a creature: features of movement;
•
anthropomorphous: social features; mental features; features of speech; intentional
features; features of perception; bodily features; emotional features; features of character;
•
of an inanimate object: features of movement; features of manipulation;
•
spatial: internal and external space.
The following categories and features will be the base for the frame and metaphoric
models' formation, which constitute the structure of the concept.
2. Based upon the analysis of distributional relations of the lexeme “ ロ シ ア roshia” with
verbs, nouns and adjectives conclusions can be made concerning the core type of syntactic
constructions, in which the concept 'roshia' is actualized. The concept is actualized in the following
syntactic constructions:
•
verbal subjective (SV) (position of the subject with a verb);
•
verbal objective (OV) (position of the object with a verb);
•
predicative (position of the predicate);
292 Asahi Shinbun, 1 March 2013.
293 Sergey SAKHNO, “Friend or foe” in conceptual structures, Mocsow, Nauka, 1991.
86
•
adjectival (position of a defined object);
•
substantival postpositional;
•
substantival (NN) (position of an attributive).
In predicate (“モスクワはロシアだ。”- Moscow is Russia. ) and substantival (“ロシアの天
然ガス” roshia no tennen gasu)　syntactic constructions the concept is actualized by attributing
the feature “Russian” to persons, objects, realities. Verbal constructions constitute dynamic aspect
of the frame structure, which formes the concept 'roshia' (its scenario compound), while adjectival
and substantival constructions constitute its static aspect (slots).
3. In adjectival syntactic construction with the lexemes “ ロシアの roshia no” or “ロシア人
roshiajin” the concept is actualized by means of attributing the feature “Russian” to the following
persons, realities, events:
•
persons: politicians, representatives of authorities, representatives of professions
(journalists), common people, etc.;
•
social realities: state structure, culture, national security system, etc.;
•
actions (in their static aspect formed by means of deverbal nouns).
In should be stated that in adjectival syntactic constructions with the lexeme “ ロ シ ア の
roshia no” the feature belonging to Russia can also be actualized. It is defined by ways of
translation of Japanese expressions into English language. For instance, in case of “ロシアの大統
領 roshia no daitōryō” two ways of translation are possible: “Russian president” or “a president of
Russia”. On the other hand, in case of “ロシアの将来 roshia no shōrai”only one way of translation
is possible:
“future of Russia” (while the translation “Russian future” is impossible or the
expression has a different meaning).
4. The examples of other denotations of Russian (excluded words with the root “ロ ro”) as
means of actualization of the concept are few. The concept is realized by words “ ソ 連 soren”,
“「怖い国」(USSR) kowai kuni”, “祖国 sokoku”, “東欧 tōō”, “巨大な国 kyodaina kuni”, etc. The
percentage ratio of the number of examples of the actualization ways is represented in the table 9.
Based upon the comparison of the quantitative ratio of various ways of representation of the
concept “ ロ シ ア roshia” it can be concluded that the most frequent way of the concept
representation is the use of the adjectival syntactic construction “ロシア roshia + noun” (42%).
Table 9.
Ways of actualization of the concept “ロシア roshia”
N Ways of actualization of the concept “ロシア roshia”
Quantity
(%)
1. ロシアの roshia no/ロシア roshia/ロシア人の roshiajin no + noun
87
42
2. ロシア roshia + postposition
21.5
3. ロシア roshia + verb (as a subject of action)
15
4. ロシア roshia + verb (as an object of action)
9
5. Attributive + ロシア
7
roshia
6. Other denominations of the concept
3.5
7. ロシア roshia in the syntactic position of predicate
2
5. For the description of Russian realities authors of the Japanese newspaper often use
metaphor. Most frequent metaphors are the following:
•
anthropomorphous;
•
military;
•
technical;
•
of an artifact;
•
zoomorphic;
•
vegetative.
6. It is typical of the political discourse and texts with pronounced political and ideological
oppositions to represent knowledge about a different country in the frame of “friend or foe”
category294.
In the discourse of Asahi Shinbun the following markers of the “friend or foe”
opposition were found:
•
lexemes with the semantics of confrontation, alienation;
•
introduction of foreign (Russian) text.
Stereotypical notions about Russia are also realized in the discourse of “Asahi Shinbun”.
For instance, the following stereotypes were found in the texts:
•
Russia is a cold country, its winter is unbearable;
•
Russia is a backward country, it lacks necessary facilities and its economy is
underdeveloped;
•
•
Russian character is unpredictable;
•
Russians are gloomy and sad, and at the same time open, romantic and generous people;
•
Russians are religious;
•
Russians love their country;
Russian women are beautiful, Russian men can be criminals.
294 SAKHNO, “Friend or foe” in conceptual structures
88
CHAPTER III
SRTUCTURE OF THE CONCEPT 'ROSHIA'
89
Structure of the concept 'roshia'
The basic methods of modeling and description of the structure of the concept 'roshia' is
frame modeling, that is selection frames (as a typified structure of knowledge about objects of
reality) and slots (as aspects of frames); method of statistical analysis of concept's features, which
allows to point out most important facets of Russian realities (data will be reflected in tables).
Simultaneously the ways of frame actualization will be described. The attention will be given in
particular to lexemes, functioning as indirect nomination. These are assessment and expressive
vocabularies, metaphors and other ways of “reconsideration of direct meanings”295.
3.1. Frame “Russia is a country/territory”
The identification of the frame “Russia is a country/territory” is based on the fact that Russia
first of all is a country and is perceived in this way.
3.1.1. Subframe “country”
The subframe is actualized by mean of the lexeme “ 国 ” kuni and the morpheme
“国”koku forming compounds like “両国”ryōkoku,　”核保有国”kakuhoyūkoku, “大国”taikoku ,
“核大国”kakutaikoku and in the constructions like “ロシアで” roshia de, for instance: “ロシア
で、６５万人いる孤児の支援策が社会問題となっている。” (In Russia with its 650 thousand
orphans their support measures have become a social problem) 296;”ロシアでは「女性の日」とし
て祝日だという。花を贈る習慣もあるが、日本ではあまり認知されていない。” (In Russia they
celebrate Women's day, but in Japan it is practically not acknowledged) 297; “プーチン氏は「両国間
に平和条約がないことは異常な事態だ」と語り、北方領土問題の解決にも意欲を示した。”(Putin
says that the absence of the peace treaty between two countries is an abnormal situation and
shows his willingness to settle the territorial issue)298.
The the frame “country” actualizes such qualities of a country as its power and potential.
According to the texts of Asahi Shinbun, Russia in terms of its might goes through different phases
of its development.
Imperial Russia is described as a country running a race for overcoming developed
295 ARUTYUNOVA, Introduction to logical analysis of the language
296 Asahi Shinbun, 16 July 2013.
297 Asahi Shinbun, 7 March 2013.
298 Asahi Shinbun, 17 December 2013.
90
countries of Europe. Not mighty, but trying to give the impression of being mighty: “なぜロシアにフ
ランス本国もうらやむほどの名画があるのか。当時の先進国フランスに強く憧れ、自国文化の発
展を願った収集家たちがいた。”(Why even France feels envious of the art collection of Russia?
At that time Russia was a country that admired developed France and there were collectors who
wanted to push forward the proper culture)299.
On the contrary, Russia under the rule of Stalin became a great country, though lacking
political freedoms. Indeed, one of the notable ways of seeing Soviet Russia of that period in Japan
was its admiration and even desire to repeat its experience 300: “工業化を進めてロシアを大国とし、
ヒトラーのドイツ打倒に大きな役割を果たした。” ((Stalin) made Russia a great country and
played an important role in defeating Hitler's Germany)301.
Modern Russia is described as a country of social disparity, economic growth but not as a
great country: “格差拡大の傾向は、すでに多くの国でみられる。中国やロシア、インドなど新興国
でも富が富裕層に集まる傾向がみられ、実際、こうした国の経済成長も鈍くなっている。”(The
tendency of the disparity gap expansion can be observed in many countries. In emerging nations
like China, Russia or India the wealth is concentrated in the hands of the rich, while the economic
growth of these countries has in fact slowed down)302.
However, Russia is still one of the key figures on the international scene, as a part of
BRICs, the organization of countries which are seen as future economic leaders of the world: “１２
年前、ブラジル（Ｂｒａｚｉｌ）、ロシア（Ｒｕｓｓｉａ）、インド（Ｉｎｄｉａ）、中国（Ｃ
ｈｉｎａ）の４カ国が急成長して世界経済を先導すると考え、「ＢＲＩＣｓ（ブリックス）」と
名付けました。今のところ予測通りですね” 303. But the real power and might is acknowledged
only when it comes to the nuclear potential of Russia: “オバマ米大統領が、歴代の米大統領が歴史
的な演説をしたベルリンで、「核なき世界」に向けた決意を語った。実現には、核大国ロシアの
協 力 が カ ギ を 握 る 。 ” (In the city of Berlin, where several generations of American presidents
made their historical speeches, President Obama showed his determination towards the “world
without nuclear power”. But in fact it is Russia, the great nuclear power, who holds the key of the
success of this plan)304.
An intellectual assessment is given in the text where Russia is evaluated as a destination
for investments: “５年ほど前までは、新興国といえばＢＲＩＣＳが中心でした。ブラジル、ロシア 、
インド、中国の動向は、今も世界中が注目していますが、投資対象としてはやや魅力が薄れてき
299 Asahi Shinbun, 5 January 2013.
300 BUKH, Japan's National Identity and Foreign Policy Russia as Japan's 'Other'
301 Asahi Shinbun, 9 March 2013.
302 Asahi Shinbun, 3 August 2013.
303 Asahi Shinbun, 7 January 2013.
304 Asahi Shinbun, 20 June 2013.
91
た印象があります” (Approximately 5 years ago emerging nations were associated first of all with
BRICs. Even today the development of Brasil, Russia, India and China attracts attention in the
world, but their attractiveness as of investment objects somewhat faded)305.
Normative assessment is used when Russia is as a separate, different country: ロシアは別
の国です。(Russia is a different country)306.
3.1.2. Subframe “soil”
The identification of the subframe “soil” is based on the metaphor “ロシアに根付く”, ie the
country, the territory of Russia are represented as soil where something can potentially grow, take
root: “西側先進国的な自由や民主主義が根付く土壌がロシアにはない。” (It is not the Russian soil
where the freedom and democracy of Western developed countries takes root. 15.11.2013)
The feature of soil is also actualized by the lexemes “土壌”(like in the example above), “土
地”: メドベージェフ首相（２０１２年７月、国後島への２度目の訪問）
「ここは古来のロシアの土地だ。一寸たりとも渡さない。私はまた訪問するし、諸閣僚も続
く」”(The Prime-minister Medvedev (July, 2012), the second visit to Kunashiri: “It is our soil from
the ancient time. We will not hand in even one meter of it. I will again visit it, and other ministers
will follow my example.”)307
3.1.3. Subframe “space”
The subframe “space” can be separated within the frame “country/territory”. The spatial
features of Russia are divided into external and internal. From the point of view of spatial
characteristics they attribute Russia features of centre:
•
it can be seen as a　one of the centres from the economic viewpoint: “５年ほど前までは、
308
新興国といえばＢＲＩＣＳが中心でした。”
•
geographically, as the centre of Northern Asia: “ 北 東 ア ジ ア の 中 心 に 突 き 刺 さ る ロ シ ア ”
(Russia piercing the the centre of northeast Asia);
•
as the centre of some activities: “ロシアを中心に活動するピアニスト宮崎朋菜さんが、演奏す
る。” (Miyadzaki Tomona performs, concentrating her activities on Russia.)309;
305 Asahi Shinbun, 27 April 2013.
306 Asahi Shinbun, 4 July 2013.
307 Asahi Shinbun, 23 April 2013.
308 Asahi Shinbun, 27 April 2013.
309 Asahi Shinbun, 11 September 2013.
92
•
as the centre of scientific research: “地球で最も過酷と言われるこの場所で、米・英・ロシアを中
心に「生命探し」の競争が激しさを帯びている。” (Those places (the Antarctic) are considered
to be the most severe in the world. Now the competition of the USA, the UK and Russia for
“finding the life” is tinged with violence)310.
From the point of view of the internal space, Russia seem to have two centres. First of all, it
is rapidly developing Far East: “日本海を隔ててすぐ隣に、掛け値無しで親日的な地域が存在す
ることはあまり知られていない。朝日新聞が昨年、支局を開設したウラジオストクとその背後に
広がるロシア極東地域だ。プーチン政権が極東開発を強力に進める中、日本の企業や自治体も熱
い 視 線 を 送 り 始 め て い る 。 ” (Right beyond the sea of Japan there is a pro-Japanese region
without inflated prices, which is not so well known (in Japan). It is Russian Far East stretching
behind Vladivostok, where the branch (of Asahi Shinbun) was opened. Now the region supported
by the government of Putin has become the object of interested looks of Japanese firms) 311. The
central position of the Far East - traditionally considered in Russia its outskirts – in the discourse of
Asahi Shinbun can be explained by the proximity of the region, historical, economic and cultural
connections, and, recently, by its attractiveness as an object of investments.
Due to objective reasons (official status, concentration of power and industry, inability of
regions to run business without interacting with the capital) Moscow is considered to be the most
important city of the country: “政治も経済もモスクワへの一極集中は激しい。”(The political life
and economy are intensively concentrated in Moscow) 312. For this reason other regions are
presented in the dependent from Moscow position: “ダイヤモンドで有名な極東の地方自治体・サ
ハ共和国などは、モスクワとの時差をさらに縮める変更をなお求めているという。”(Famous for
its diamonds republic Sakha, an autonomous entity situated in the Far East of Russia, still
demands to reduce the time difference with Moscow (in order to be able to interact with it more
effectively)313. “サハリンで売られている食料品や雑貨のほとんどは、約１万キロ離れたモスクワ
から運ばれており、物価が高いのが難点です。”(Most of goods sold in Sakhalin are delivered
from Moscow, situated in 10000 kilometers of it. It makes the cost-of-living there very high)314.
Russia is endowed with its internal spatial characteristics when it is called by Japanese
journalists “ところ tokoro”, “場所 basho” (place), for instance: “ロシアは私の研究テーマにとって
興味深い場所である。”(Russia is very interesting place for my research)315. “多様な民族や人種の
集まるところは、研究にとっても大事です。” (The place where many nations and races are
310 Asahi Shinbun, 30 September 2013.
311 Asahi Shinbun, 31 January 2013.
312 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
313 Ibidem.
314 Asahi Shinbun, 16 December 2013.
315 Asahi Shinbun, 9 October 2013.
93
gathered together is important for a research) 316. “アジアに情報発信するには重要なところだ。”
((Russia) is an important place from the point of view of the information transmission to Asia)317.
As a certain place Russia is evaluated as an interesting and important place in respect of
being interesting/uninteresting and important/unimportant.
The spatial component is intrinsic of the words “ところ tokoro”, “場所 basho”, it is a place
(locus), which is characterized from the point of view of the space: its location, its area, its borders,
etc. Russia as a certain locus is characterized by its dimensional features: “ 巨 大 な ロ シ ア
kyodaina roshia”: “この巨大な国、大変だ” 318
From the point of view of its borders, something
can be located within the territory: “ロシア国内”(inside Russia), “ロシアにおける”(in Russia): “ロ
シア国内の聖火リレーが始まるのは今年の１０月８日。” 319 Something can be located inside
and outside Russia: ロシア内外情勢 (Russia situation at home and abroad), “ロシア内外で多くの
マスタークラスを開催。”(Many master classes are organized both in Russia and outside it) 320.
The borders can intersect: “ロシア全体で”　roshia zentai de (across Russia), “ロシア各地で”
roshia kakuchi de　(throughout Russia).
3.1.4. Subframe “geography”
The subframe “geography” is also identified within the frame “country/territory”. The names
of Russia's time zones, cities, villages, regions pertain to general terms and geographical names,
for instance: “ロシアの工業地帯 roshia no kōgyō chitai”, “ロシアの村 roshia no mura”, “ロシアの
田舎 roshia no inaka”, “ロシアの九つ時間帯 roshia no kokonotsu jikantai”, “ロシアの地方 roshia no
chihō ”, “ロシアの極東 roshia no kyokutō ”, for instance: “ロシア極東部の沿海地方は、運転免許
の技能試験も右ハンドル車で受験できる珍しい地域という。” (Primorsky kray, situated in the
Eastern part of Russia, is an unusual place where you can even pass your driving license on a
right-hand car)321. Primorsky kray, one of the most frequently mentioned region in texts of Asahi
Shinbun is referred as a curious region, full of incomprehensible for the Japanese particularities,
though the closest to Japan geographically and historically.
The mentions of South and East of Russia also pertain to the geographical knowledge of
the Japanese about Russia. The East of Russia is huge, but sparsely populated area, which is of
316 Ibidem.
317 Asahi Shinbun, 1 August 2013.
318 Asahi Shinbun, 21 May 2013.
319 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
320 Asahi Shinbun, 23 October 2013.
321 Asahi Shinbun, 31 January 2013.
94
interest for the authors of Asahi Shinbun:　” 日本の面積の１６倍に相当する極東連邦管区の人口は
約６３０万人で、２０年間で２割も減少した。”(Far East Federal District is 16 times as bigger
as Japan, but its population is around 6 million 300 thousand people and over the last 20 years it
reduced twice)322.
The South of Russia is represented by Sochi and republic of Caucasus, from which Sochi
should be protected: “ソチは、独立を主張するチェチェン共和国や、軍事衝突のあった南オセチア
自 治 州 か ら 近 く 、 治 安 上 の 不 安 も あ る 。 ” (Sochi's security can be unstable because of its
proximity to the Chechen republic, claiming its independence, and South Ossetia, where the
military conflict took place)323.
The North of Russia is poorly presented by Asahi Shinbun. It can be supposed that the
reason behind it is that Russia as a whole is perceived as a country in the north, occupying the
northern part of Asia. The North is the region of Taiga, uninhabited or uncivilized region: “車で何時
間走っても人影が見えないタイガ、狩猟民族が暮らす北極圏もある。” (You can go in a car
through Taiga for many hours without seeing a shade of a human being. There is also Arctic
region, where tribes of hunters live)324.
The subframe “space” is also actualized by the word “ 国 土
kokudo”, referring to its
dimensions: “ロシアの国土は東西約１万キロに広がる。いくつもの時間帯を横切る長距離列車は 、
もっと極端だ。”(Russia's territory stretches from the east to the west about 10,000 kilometers.
The long-distance trains going from one extremity to another cross several time zones)325.
3.1.5. Subframe “geographical objects”
Designations of concrete geographical objects is united into a separate subframe. The texts
elements included in it are names of regions, cities, villages, districts.
•
Moscow
Moscow as the capital of Russia is one of the most frequently mentioned geographical
object in texts of Asahi Shinbun. The particularity of those texts is that their authors do not mention
the status of Russia's capital　(unlike, for instance the capital of Ukraine Kiev: “ウクライナの首都
キエフ” ukuraina no shuto kiefu). Evidently, the degree of fixedness between the nomination and
the object is quite high, and for this reason mentioning the status of Moscow is not necessary.
According to S. Sakhno, a status is not highlighted when objects have firmly fixed names behind
322 Asahi Shinbun, 15 January 2013.
323 Asahi Shinbun, 1 December 2013.
324 Asahi Shinbun, 16 February 2013.
325 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
95
themselves: it is the characteristic of the “Self” world326.
Indeed, the Japanese journalists know many objects (ㇷ゚
シキン美術館 pushikin bijutsukan,
モスクワ大学 mosukuwa daigaku,　モスクワのルジニキ競技場 mosukuwa no rujiniki kyōgijō ,
モスク ワ のシ ェレメチ ェボ空港 mosukuwa no sheremechebo kūkō, マネ ージュ 広場 manēju
hiroba) in Moscow, they refer to its various districts and its suburbs: “モスクワ南西にある大統領公
邸からクレムリンまでの約３０キロの道。”(There are approximately 30 kilometers between The
President residence in the southwest of Moscow and Kremlin) 327; “宇宙飛行士の若田光一さん（５
０）らがモスクワ郊外「星の町」での訓練を１２日、報道陣に公開した。” (According to the
press, the astronaut Wakata Koichi (50) and his team started their training on August, 12 in the
“star town” in suburbs of Moscow) 328. “モスクワ中心部から車で約１時間。緑豊かなノボゴルスク
には、ロシアの新体操のトップ選手や若手有望株が集まる国立の巨大な体育館がある。” (In
about one hour of drive from the centre of Moscow there is green Novogorsk with its huge state
stadium for Russian rhythmic gymnastics top athletes and young promising newcomers)329.
Moscow is not only Russia's capital, its political and economic centre, but also the place of
concentration of the art: “モスクワに点在するアートスペース” (Moscow dotted with art spaces);
“モスクワには、大商人らが収集した印象派以降の類いまれなコレクションが存在した。” (In
Moscow there is a rare collection of impressionist art, gathered by its wealthy merchants) 330.
•
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg seem to be of no interest for the Japanese journalists. Mentioned primarily
in connection with the events taking place in this city, within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun it loses
its status of “the second capital” or “cultural capital” of Russia: “ 国際オリンピック委員会（ＩＯ
Ｃ）理事会は３１日、ロシア・サンクトペテルブルクで３日間の日程を終えた。”331
Unlike Moscow, Saint Petersburg is not the part of the “Self” world. For this reason the
name of the city is often combined with words “ロシアの roshia no” or “西部 seibu”, explaining its
location: “西部のサンクトペテルブルク市の工場; ５日には主要２０カ国・地域（Ｇ２０）首脳会
議が開かれるロシアのサンクトペテルブルクに入る。”332
•
Vladivostok
Vladivostok is the most frequently mentioned geographical object in texts of Asahi Shinbun.
Rather than Moscow, which central status is based on its status of Russia's capital, Vladivostok for
326 SAKHNO, “Friend or foe” in conceptual structures
327 Asahi Shibun, 18 May 2013.
328Asahi Shibun, 13 August 2013.
329 Asahi Shibun, 28 August 2013.
330 Asahi Shibun, 26 May 2013.
331 Asahi Shibun, 1 June 2013.
332 Asahi Shibun, 1 September 2013.
96
authors of Asahi Shinbun is the true centre of the country, the city connecting Japan with Russia.
Like in the texts mentioning Moscow, authors usually do not mention the location of Vladivostok
and its name is often reduced to “ウラジオ urajio”, which used to be written with characters “浦塩
urajio”: “ウラジオの街は、世界屈指の大要塞に囲まれている。” (The center of Vladivostok is
surrounded by an outstanding big fortification)333.
Like in case of Moscow, journalists show knowledge about the city's districts and suburbs:
“診断センターはウラジオ郊外の保養施設内にあり、広さ約６４０平方メートル。”334
The city plays an important role from the point of view of unofficial contacts, studies exchange,
cultural exchange: “鳥取市が１０年にウラジオストク市と友好交流の覚書をかわしたことから決め
たという。”(It was decided when in 2010 the Memorandum of friendly exchanges was signed)335.
The metaphor “「アジアへの窓」”ajia he no mado (window to Asia) is used for the description of
Vladivostok: “「アジアへの窓」と位置づける極東ウラジオストクで昨秋、アジア太平洋経済協力
会議（ＡＰＥＣ）を開催。” (Far Eastern city Vladivostok, which is also called “the window to
Asia” became the last autumn the venue of APEC conference) 336. Indeed, geographically and
historically Vladivostok is the “window” to the Asian part of Russia.
•
Far East
Like Vladivostok Far East as a whole attracts attention of the authors of “Asahi Shinbun”.
The regions frequently mentioned are “サハリン” saharin/”樺太”karafuto (Sakhalin),　”沿海地
方” enkai chihō (Primorsky kray); cities “ハバロフスク”habarofusuku (Habarovsk), “ユジノサハ
リンスク” yujinosaharinsuku (Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk).
Described usually as a rapidly developing region, it attracts attention not only of the
officials, but also of common people. For instance, due to the deepening relationships between
Japan and this region of Russia, business and diplomatic exchange, Japanese students express
their willingness to study Russian language and culture: “エネルギー開発が進められるロシア極東
地域に、新潟の学生たちの関心が高まっている。将来の外交の懸け橋になりたい、ロシアの文化
を 知 り た い ― ― と 。 ” (There has been a growing interest of Japanese students from Niigata
towards the Russian Far East, where the energy industry is being developed. “In future would like
to become the bridge in the Japan-Russia diplomacy, I would like to know Russian culture”)337.
•
Siberia
Siberian region is less represented by Asahi Shinbun. It is often associated with the Far
333 Asahi Shibun, 2 May 2013.
334 Asahi Shibun, 29 May 2013.
335 Asahi Shibun, 29 July 2013.
336 Asahi Shibun, 14 March 2013.
337 Asahi Shibun, 5 August 2013.
97
East: “ 極 東やシベリアの開 発で、日本の 資金 や技 術の引き 入れは欠かせ ない。” 338. In the
Japanese world-view Siberia is mostly associated with “シベリアの収容所 shiberia no shūyōsho/抑
留 所 yokuryūsho” (Siberian internment camps), “ シ ベ リ ア 出 兵
shiberia shupei”(Siberian
intervention) and “シベリア鉄道”shiberia tetsudō (Trans-Siberian Railway). The latter is seen as
an important means of connection between Japan and Russia: “また、日ロ間の貿易が増大し、日
本からロシアへの投資や企業進出が活発になっているとして、シベリア鉄道の競争力強化などに
よ っ て 日 本 海 物 流 が 盛 ん に な る こ と へ の 期 待 も 表 明 さ れ た 。 ” (The hope has also been
expressed that if the trade between Japan and Russia, Japanese investment and corporate
expansion would increase, and the Japan Sea logistics would prosper in Russia due to the
strengthening of the Trans-Siberian Railway competitiveness)339.
•
Sochi
Sochi is mentioned in texts of Asahi Shinbun mostly in connection with the Olympic Games
2014 held in this city, and the attitude towards this city changes according to international policies
of Russia: “同性愛規制、ソチに影” (Homosexuality regulation casts a shadow on Sochi) 340. The
metaphor “南の玄関 minami no genkan” is used in order to describe it: “ソチは、いわばロシアの南
の 玄 関 だ 。 ” (Sochi is, so to speak, the entrance to the South of Russia) 341. This metaphor
together with the metaphor “アジアへの窓 ajia he no mado” represent Russia within the frame of
the metaphoric model “Russia is a house”.
•
Caucasus
The region, almost unmentioned in Asahi Shinbun and unknown in Japan before
15.04.2013, attracted a lot of attention of journalists after Boston Marathon bombings. Russian
Caucasus is, first of all, Chechnya and Dagestan: “日本でも「チェチェンとはどこだろう？」と
思った人が大勢いるはずです。[...] アメリカに住むイスラム教徒の若者に、チェチェン人意識
が生まれ、次第に過激思想を持つようになり、テロに走る。”(In Japan there are many people
who could ask “Chechnya? Where is it?” [...] Young Muslims living in the USA grow Chechen
consciousness, consequently develop extremist world-view and become terrorists) 342. While
Chechen consciousness is associated with extremism and terrorism, Chechnya is the Motherland
for many many terrorists: “チェチェン共和国は、多くのイスラム過激派やテロリストを生んだ土
地だ。”(Chechen republic is the land that gave birth to many Islamic extremists and terrorists) 343.
Scheme 3.
338 Asahi Shibun, 23 August 2013.
339 Asahi Shinbun, 4 October 2013.
340 Asahi Shinbun, 19 August 2013.
341 Asahi Shinbun, 8 February 2013.
342 Asahi Shinbun, 26 April 2013.
343 Asahi Shinbun, 19 April 2013.
98
The “map” of Russia.
Moscow
Primorsky kray
Sakhalin
'
Vladivostok
Sochi
Dagestan
Chechnya
The scheme 3 shows approximate location of geographical objects of Russia, attracting
interest of Asahi Shinbun's journalists by various parameters (economics, politics, history, sport,
etc.). In this way, common notions of the Japanese about Russia's geography are within the frame
the capital of Russia – official center of the country – Moscow, the window to Asia and to Russia –
Vladivostok, rapidly developing region – object of investments – the Far East, the motherland of
terrorists – Cechen republic and Dagestan and several other cities (Sochi, Izhevsk, Chelyabinsk,
Saint Petersburg, etc.), villages, regions.
Moscow and Vladivostok are subjects to fractional
spacial division: in these cities the journalists know city centres, suburbs, several districts and
objects.
The fragment of the world-view, represented in the discourse of the Japanese newspaper
and corresponding to the subframes “geographical objects” and “space of Russia” presumably
have archaic features of the mythopoetic conception of the space. Its main idea is the allocation of
the world's centre, periphery and “bad” places. In the center (in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun
there are 2 centers: Moscow, the key spatial point for Russia, and Vladivostok, the key point for
Japan) as a rule there is an altar, church, cross, world axis, stone, mountain (in Moscow there is
Kremlin, in Vladivostok there is the fort) 344. But Moscow is not Russia's heart, it is the official centre,
while the heart is in the regions of Russia depending on Moscow.
«Bad» place in the archaic world model (Checnya) is usually wood, gorge, marsh, ravine.
Periphery in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun is not designated with a specific denomination, it
rather lies within generalized names of regions, borders. Empty, blank (schematic) map shows that
the Japanese in general refer to Russia as a strange, unknown, foreign country; Russia for them is
344 Victor TOPOROV, Space. Myths of the world, Moscow, Sovetskaya encyclopedia, 1994
99
the undeveloped “Other”, inhabited by unknown people, it is mysterious space, which is fraught
with danger; this view of Russia corresponds to the stereotype “Russia and Japan are opponents”
and realizes the “friend or foe” category.
Table 9.
Frame “Russia is the country/territory”
Frame
Subframe
%
«Russia is the country/territory»
«geographical objects»
57,5
«country»
21
«geography»
15
«space»
6
«soil»
0.5
3.2. Frame “Russia is a state”
The frame is a structural component of the concept “Russia” and at the same time it is a
complex structure formed on the basis of generic characteristics of features of Russia as a state.
The segment structure of the frame is based on its subframes and slots.
The analysis of characteristics of the different aspects of life in the country as a state (ie,
the structural elements of the concept “Russia”) helps create a detailed portrait of Russia, as it is
represented in the Japanese newspaper. Generalizations of this kind allow a nation to see
themselves from the outside. For example, according to the analysis of Japanese textbooks of
Russian language, Russia appears as a “huge, technically backward country, where it is cold and
people do not live long. Russia is a retrograde country, where there are still remains of paganism,
there is no official religion. Russians are cruel: their most famous novel is about murder for money,
the first dog in the space was doomed to a painful death. Russia is characterized as a countryconqueror; its participation in the space exploration is coloured with dark tones: space garbage
(Sputnik) can kill an astronaut. In addition, Russians misuse alcohol, they lead an unhealthy way
of life, they are aggressive”345.
In this way, typical aspects of the state life, such as political structure, religion, culture,
manufacturing, etc. become the basis for the identification within the frame “Russia is a state” of
subframes and slots, while text elements, which describe them, help create a sociocultural portrait
of Russia.
3.2.1. Subframe “characteristics of the state”
Slot “freedom”
345 Anna BOYCHENKO, Area studies: Japan, Karasnoyarsk, SFU Press, 2010
100
The freedom in Russia, according to the texts of Asahi Shinbun, is an ambivalent
conception: on one hand its an innate right given to all people, which Russia as a state lacks, on
the other hand, it is an instrument that must be used judiciously: its misuse may lead to
undesirable consequences, its deprivation may lead to protests. Personal freedom and the law in
Russia are often opposed to each other: “ロシアで同性愛者への差別や圧力につながりかねない法
律 が 成 立 し 、 波 紋 を 呼 ん で い る 。 ” (The law that can lead to discrimination and pressure of
homosexuals creates a stir in Russia)346; “個人情報の保護と安全保障の要請との間のバランスをど
のように取ればよいのかという問題は残る。国家による情報収集と機密保護は、常に国民の私的
自由、国家の干渉から私生活を守る権利との緊張関係に立つからだ。”(The question of balance
between protection of personal information and security guarantee remain unsolved (in Russia).
Information collection and secrecy protection by the state is always in tense relations with the
protection of private freedoms and rights from the interference of the state) 347. “ロシアは経済的独
立という幻想をふりまくが、その裏では圧力をかけている。” (Russia sprinkles the idea of the
independent economy, but behind it there is only pressure)348.
The opposition of the freedom and the law is not contradictory to the concept of freedom in
Russian linguistic consciousness. For instance, A. Wierzbicka after conducting a research into the
concept “freedom” in Russian language has concluded that the freedom is defined as the absence
of pressure, different obstacles that hamper the action: “Semantic profile of the word “freedom” can
be associated with the political history of Russia: the despotism of kings, the lack of democratic
structures and the absence of effective legal system equal to all, the meaning of arbitrary exercised
power and the desire to escape from this power”349. It is typical of Russian linguistic consciousness
to perceive freedom as a feature of the urban life: strictly regulated way of life of rural communities
is opposed to a much freer life in cities.
Personal freedom can be dangerous when people are not ready to be granted with it: “歴史
的な視野に立つなら、この小説が書かれた十九世紀後半のロシアとは、数世紀におよぶ農奴制が
廃止され、自ら自由をあがなった名もなき人々が、金という新しい神に翻弄（ほんろう）されて
生きた時代である。”(From the historical point of view, the book was written in the second half of
the 19th century, when after several years of slavery people who did not even have names got their
personal freedom, and fell into a trap of the new God of gold)350,
The freedom can also be dangerous and lead to unpredictable results, when it comes to the
freedom of religion: “ロシアのイスラム過激派は、ソ連崩壊後のロシア南部で急速に広がった。こ
346 Asahi Shinbun, 19 August 2013.
347 Asahi Shinbun, 18 November 2013.
348 Asahi Shinbun, 30 December 2013.
349 WIERZBICKA, Comparison of cultures through language and pragmatics, Moscow, languages of Slavic culture
350 Asahi Shinbun, 4 March 2013.
101
の地域の伝統的なイスラム教は比較的穏健だったが、宗教の自由が認められたことを受け、過激
な 思想 を 持つ宗教指 導 者らが 外部から 流入 。 ” (Islamic extremists in southern Russia spread
rapidly after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Although traditional Islam in the region was relatively
moderate, after getting the freedom of religion, Islam experienced the inflow of religious leaders
with radical ideas from the outside)351. In a sense, Russia needs more law and order, even if
freedoms will be sacrificed.
Freedom can be a feature of social life of a country, which is actualized by attributives “自由
jiyū”or “独立 dokuritsu” (free, independent). For instance, this characteristic, included into names,
can by given to the mass media “ 「自由サハリン」という新聞” (newspaper “Free Sakhalin”),
trade “ 自 由 貿 易 ” jiyū bōeki (free trade), religion “ 宗 教 の 自 由 ” shūkyō no jiyū (freedom of
religion), speech and political activities: “プライバシーの権利がなければ真の言論の自由はありえ
ず、民主主義もない」と痛烈に批判。” (The policy of the state) was bitterly criticized: “If there is
no privacy, neither the freedom of speech, nor democracy are possible”) 352. “貧富の差が大きいうえ、
政治活動や言論の自由に乏しいロシア” (Russia is the country with a big gap between the poor
and the rich and therefore it is poor in political freedoms and the freedom of speech)353.
Orientation of the Japanese linguistic consciousness to the freedom of public life as a
constant is described by means of the metaphor “ 自由剥奪 jiyū hakudatsu” (freedom deprivation)
(compare: “権利を剥奪する”　to deprive of rights): “ロシアメディアによると、八百長試合の首
謀者や関与者は最長７年の自由剥奪（はくだつ）刑を科す。”(According to the Russian press,
masterminds and participants
of match-fixing are deprived of the freedom up to 7 years) 354.
According to V. Telia, such assessment is carried out “in accordance with “standard” of existence
or a state of affairs in a certain world-view, underlying the assessment standards” 355. Thus, as
Japan since the World war II has been catching up with the USA in terms of freedoms and rights,
freedom in the Japanese world-view is seen as a norm, even though under certain conditions.
Slot “democracy”
As an indication of the political structure of the state, the lexeme “民主主義 minshushugi” or
is not represented in texts of Asahi Shinbun, or it is represented as an element absent in the
political structure of Russia: “プライバシーの権利がなければ真の言論の自由はありえず、民主主
義もない」と痛烈に批判。” (The policy of the state) was bitterly criticized: “If there is no privacy,
neither the real freedom of speech, nor democracy are possible”) 356. The word combination
351 Asahi Shinbun, 31 January 2013.
352 Asahi Shinbun, 14 June 2013.
353 Asahi Shinbun, 17 September 2013.
354 Asahi Shinbun, 6 February 2013.
355 Quoted from ARUTYUNOVA, Introduction to logical analysis of the language.
356 Asahi Shinbun, 14 June 2013.
102
“Russian democracy”357 was not found, while political system of Russia is characterized by the
word “民主化 minsuka” (democratization). The legitimacy of the existence of Russian democracy is
a fact of reality and as a phenomenon is denied by the Japanese newspaper: it is unclear how far
Russia advanced on its way towards democracy, but it is clear that Russia's government is neither
communist nor undemocratic: “ロシアは共産主義ではなくなったが、まだ強権的な体質が残ってい
る。もっと民主的な国にならないと、多くの国民が領土問題を理解するのは難しい。”(Russia is
not a communist country anymore, but it still has propensity to authoritarianism. If it does not
become democratic, it will be difficult to understand the South Kuril issue) 358. Democracy of Russia
is seen as a prerequisite in the formation of Japan-Russia relations, which equals in turn Japan to
a democratic state.
According to authors of Asahi Shinbun, democracy in general can have some kind of
national characteristics (to be European, American: “西欧民主主義” seiō minshushugi, “米民主主
義” bei minshushugi), be healthy or unhealthy: “民主主義として健康とはいえない”(it is not
healthy for democracy), that is there is a certain standard of democracy, in comparison to which
the degree of state's democracy is determined. Russia does not have these characteristics, which
is proved by the use of the word “ 民 主 化 minshuka”, that is a process of movement towards
democracy: “ロシアの民主化の動き” (the movement of democratization in Russia).
Democracy in the Japanese linguistic world-view as a complex and abstract socio-political
concept becomes the object of metaphoric rethinking. By means of the anthropomorphous
metaphors democracy/democratization are equaled to a human being: “民主主義として健康とはい
えない” (it is not healthy for democracy); “ロシアの民主化の試金石といわれ、昨年復活したばか
り の 「 知 事 公 選 制 」 が 後 退 す る 可 能 性 が 出 て き た 。 ” (“The system of public gubernatorial
election”, the touchstone of Russia's democratization, which was just revived the last year, seems
to be abolished soon)359.
Democratization has the ability to move, it can literally go backward becoming a backslider:
“欧米からは民主化の後退と批判されてきた。” (The retreat of democratization (of Russia) was
criticized in Europe and the USA)360. Backward movement of Russian democratization, ie its return
to the opposite state, despotism, is associated with V. Putin's regime. Thus, in connection with
negative estimation of coordinates “behind”, Putin and his government are negatively connoted. In
many languages cognitive models are classified on the scale of values: “a positive assessment is
related with spatial coordinates “up-front-right”, and negative one is related with “bottom-left-
357 for instance, like 西欧の民主主義seiō no minshushugi - West European democracy
358 Asahi Shinbun, 18 August 2013.
359 Asahi Shinbun, 4 April 2013.
360Ibidem.
103
behind”361.
Whole countries and regions can be characterized as democratic or undemocratic. For
instance, Europe is acknowledged as democratic: “民主主義を基本的価値観とする欧州” (basic
value of Europe is democracy); while Syria is seen as a country wallowing in civil war for
democracy: “２０１１年３月から民主化要求デモが激化し、アサド政権が武力弾圧した。[...] ロシ
アや中国はアサド政権、欧米は反体制派を支持しており。” (The demonstrations requesting
democratization intensified starting from March 2011, and the regime of Bashar al-Assad was
suppressed by arms. […] Russia and China support Assad regime, while Europe and the US
support rebels)362. Norm or ideal – democracy – is the aim of Syrian rebels, for this reason they are
supported by democratic Europe and the US.
Russia and China, as the opposition to the
democratic world support the power of Assad. This fragment implements the metaphorical model
“villain – victim – savior” by J. Lakoff. The villains here are Assad, Russia and China, the victim is
Syrian democracy and the saviors are Europe, the USA and Syrian rebels.
In this way, democracy in the Japanese world-view is a norm at which countries must aim.
The retreat from democracy is evaluated negatively.
Slot “power of the state”
As a state Russia is characterized with the ability to exercise power, to rule, but the
Japanese newspaper is interested in the static, and not dynamic aspect of the power, which is a
result of Russia's ruling activity. It is described by means of word-combinations with the
corresponding semantics and “ロシア roshia” as an attributive, for example: “ロシアの影響 roshia
no eikyō” (Russia influence), “ロシアの威信 roshia no ishin” (Russia's prestige), “ロシアの圧力
roshia no atsuryoku” (pressure of Russia), etc.
Russia is represented as a country asserting its authority and influence in its own former
republics: “政府がロシアの圧力でＥＵとの経済連携を強化する協定締結を断念したことに、野党
勢力は抗議を続けている。” (The opposition forces (of Ukraine) are continuing to protest after
the government abandoned the agreement over the economic partnership with the EU under the
pressure of Russia)363; “旧ソ連諸国のＥＵ接近を望まないロシアが圧力をかけた。”(Russia puts
pressure on the former Soviet republics, because it want to prevent them from approaching the
European Union364). Despite of the attempts to expand its influence outside the country, Russia
seem not to be able to control its own territory: “五輪本番を前に、今後もテロが続発するようだと、
政権の威信が大きく揺らぐ可能性もある 。” (Successive terroristic acts may occur just before the
start of the Olympic games. In this case the prestige of Russia's power will be hampered to a great
361 PIMENOVA, Methods of conceptual researches
362 Asahi Shinbun, 28 August 2013.
363 Asahi Shinbun, 2 December 2013.
364 Asahi Shinbun, 23 November 2013.
104
extent)365.
Overall, the strengthening of Russia's political influence is seen as the rebirth of the police
state, its international authority is evaluated negatively, as Russia restricts the freedom of other
states.
Not only Russia's political influence is evaluated negatively but also the economic
partnership with Russia is seen as potentially dangerous, unstable. The dependence of Europe on
Russia is described by the metaphor “ロシア依存 roshia izon” (Russia dependence), comparing it
with drag dependence in terms of its danger and potential negative consequences: “欧州は天然ガ
スの４分の１をロシアに頼り、ロシアから欧州に送られる量の８割はウクライナ経由だった。影
響は各国に広がり、「ロシア依存」の危うさが浮き彫りになった 。” (One quarter of natural gas in
Europe is supplied by Russia, and 80% of it were sent from Russia to Europe via Ukraine. As the
influence (of the crisis) is spreading in every country, the danger of “Russia dependence” has
become highlighted.)366
The text fragment “リトアニア政府はロシアの影響下から抜けるためにＥＵ加盟を最優先の
課題と位置づけており、原発を閉鎖することに同意した。[...]　「影響力を保ちたいロシアが邪
魔 を し て い る 」 と 勘 ぐ る 市 民 も い る 。 ” (In order to go out from the influence of Russia, the
government of Lithuania has positioned the membership in the EU as its top priority, and agreed to
close the nuclear power plant. […] “Russia interferes, because it wants to keep its influence”,
suspect Lithuanians)367. comment that Russia's control over the region is shaky: Russia needs to
interfere in internal policies of another state in order to keep the control over it. The postposition 下
(under) means the location of one object under another, and in a figurative sense indicates a
position under the authority, control, command, “subordinate to somebody”. The analysis of these
meanings refers to the orientational metaphor of J. Lakoff and M. Johnson, who wrote that “in
terms of the vertical line possession of power, the power is the top, while the object of power is the
bottom. Physical position correlates with physical strength, and the winner in the battle is
typologically “located” on the top”368.
Vertical orientational metaphor of the power possession “ 影 響 下 eikyōka” (under the
influence) is supplemented by the expression “圧力をかかる atsuryoku o kakaru”(to put pressure),
wherein is the verb “かかる kakaru” (to hang, to overlap, to be covered) has inherent semantics of
doing something from top to down: “米国に圧力がかかる。”(The pressure will be exerted on the
USA (by Russia)369.
365 Asahi Shinbun, 30 December 2013.
366 Asahi Shinbun, 17 November 2013.
367 Asahi Shinbun, 21 July 2013.
368 LAKOFF, JOHNSON, Metaphors We Live By.
369 Asahi Shinbun, 11 November 2013.
105
In this way, the concepts “power”, “influence” are realized in the Japanese linguistic worldview in terms of the vertical orientational metaphor. Russia, in its turn, is represented as a police
state interfering in other countries internal policies and at the same time not being able to control
the situation on its own territory. The economic dependence on Russia is dangerous.
Slot “fasces”
The slot is realized by indicating Russian flag and Russian anthem as main symbols of the
state, performing a function of unification of the nation; and the Constitution of Russia, as the main
document regulating the social life within the country:
1. “「ロシア――偉大な国」と大きく書かれた国旗や、国歌の歌詞、プーチン大統領とメド
ベージェフ首相の写真。”(Photo where there are the President Putin, the Prime Minister
Medvedev and the national flag with with largely written on it “Russia – a great country”
and the words of the national anthem)370.
2. “１時間目の授業が始まる直前の午前８時５０分ごろ、校内放送でロシアの国歌が流れ始
めた。”(At around 8.50 in the morning, just before the first lesson started, the Russian
anthem began flowing on the school radio)371.
3. “恩赦はロシア憲法制定２０周年を記念してこのほど決定され、２万人以上の受刑者が対
象 と な っ た 。 ” (More than 20,000 prisoners were granted amnesty dated for the 20 th
anniversary of the Russian Constitution)372.
Slot “elections”
As the symbol of democracy and free state elections are an important institution for political
systems of democratic countries, to which Japan is ascribed. In Russia elections exist since the
beginning of democratization and are connected with the formation of presidency and parliament
institutions.
The presidential election institution is reflected in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun by means
of the lexeme “ 大統領選”. In the scenario of a presidential election the political protagonist, ie a
candidate for the presidency is a variable component. So, Asahi Shinbun, for instance, mentions
the elections of B. Yeltsin and V. Putin: “政治腐敗は継承　ベレゾフスキー氏が政界でフィクサーと
して頭角を現したのは１９９６年の大統領選。配下のメディアを総動員して、人気がどん底だっ
たエリツィン氏を力ずくで再選させた。さらに９９年にはエリツィン大統領の最側近として、
まったく無名のプーチン氏を大統領の後継者に仕立てた。いずれも、自身の利権や身の安全を守
るためだったと受け止められている。”(Inherited political corruption. Berezovsky emerged in the
political world as a fixer in 1996, the year of presidential election. He mobilized his subordinate
media and, as a result, Yeltsin whose popularity was very law, was re-elected by force. Again, in
370Asahi Shinbun, 26 April 2013.
371 Asahi Shinbun, 19 March 2013.
372 Asahi Shinbun, 24 December 2013.
106
1999 the closest aide of Yeltsin Putin, unknown to anybody at that time, was prepared to become
the successor of the President. Both things are perceived as the protection of their own interests
and their own safety)373. The election in Russia in fact are not seen as a democratic institution
(which is corresponding to the notion that there is no democracy in Russia), rather they are
described as a kind of conspiracy between Russia's political elites, oligarchy and its subordinate
media. This image of Russia's election corresponds either to Russian negative evaluation of
elections: for instance, according to the public opinion poll, conducted by the radio “Echo Moskvy”,
42% of respondents were not going to participate in presidential elections 2012374.
Elections of governors are reflected in the discourse of “Asahi Shinbun” by means of
lexemes “ 知 事 公 選 chiji kōsen” (public gubernatorial election), its abolishment in Russia is
evaluated negatively, seen as a possibility to appoint only candidates from ruling parties, and
hence the possibility to cut down the democratization process: “改正法によると、各地方自治体は
知事公選制を廃止することができ、その場合、主要政党が推薦する人たちを大統領が３人に絞り
込み、地方議会に知事候補として提示。議員票の過半数を獲得した候補者が知事になる。大統領
が候補者をすべて与党から推薦を受けた人にすることも可能だ。” (According to the revised law,
each local government can abolish public gubernatorial election. In this case, the list of candidates
shortlisted by the main parties will be narrowed down to 3 by the President and will be presented
as a gubernatorial candidates list in the local council. A candidate receiving the majority of
lawmakers votes will become a governor. It is also probably that the President will shortlist only
candidates recommended by the ruling party)375.
Slot “law”
The slot is realized by lexemes “ 法律 hōritsu”, “改正 法 kaiseihō” (revised law), and wordcombinations with the suffix “ 法 hō”.
The rule of the law is one of the main features of a
democratic state, but Japanese journalists seem to be skeptic about the law in Russia, proving
once again that Russia is not a democratic state. Russia's law and lawmaking are described to be:
1. weak and having loopholes: “厳しい法律がないため、捜査当局も追及の手立てがない 。”
(Since there are no strict laws (in Russia), there is no means to question investigation
authorities)376. “不誠実なビジネスマンや法の抜け穴があるのも事実。” (The fact is that
there are dishonest businessman and loopholes in laws)377;
2. scandalous, leading to protests, calling for critiques: “ロシアの子どもたちを米国に養子に出
すことを禁じる法律に抗議する集会が１３日、モスクワなどロシア各地で開かれ
373 Asahi Shinbun, 1 April 2013.
374 Echo Moskvy, 17 February 2012 (http://echo.msk.ru/)
375 Asahi Shinbun, 4 April 2013.
376 Asahi Shinbun, 5 February 2013.
377 Asahi Shinbun, 10 September 2013.
107
た。”(On January, 13 rallies were held in Moscow and other parts of Russia against the
law, prohibiting the adoption of Russian children in the United States) 378. “モスクワで１８日
まで開かれた陸上の世界選手権で、この法律をめぐって騒動が起きた。”(The law caused
the uproar in Moscow during the World Track-and-field championship)379;
3. unclear and unstable: “法律が頻繁に変更される、通関や検疫のシステムがわかりにくい、
といったロシア特有の事情に加え、中小企業を支援する仕組みがない、という問題があっ
た。”(The problem is that in Russia the laws are frequently revised, customs and quarantine
systems are incomprehensible. In addition to these features of Russia's circumstances, the
mechanism supporting small and medium-size enterprises is absent)380;
4. discriminatory and undemocratic: “ ロシアの同性愛者への差別につながりかねない法律
(Russian law, which can potentially lead to discrimination against homosexuals); ロシア、
知事公選制後退　改正法で廃止可能に。 ロシアの民主化の試金石といわた「知事公選
制」”(Russia, the system of public gubernatorial election, possibly abolished according to
the revised law. “The system of public gubernatorial election”, called the touchstone of
Russia's democratization)381.
Russian laws are described as prohibitive and unpredictable, the systems of economic
support are absent, Russian citizens seem to be helpless in front of the law. All these may be one
of the reasons behind the lack of partnership between Russia and Japan in all levels.
Slot “politics”
All designations of political sphere can roughly be divided into two groups: internal and
foreign policies.
The main feature of Russia's social and political trends is their authoritarianism. Though
Russia is not a communist country anymore: “ロシアは共産主義ではなくなったが、まだ強権的な
体質 が 残 って いる 。 ” 382, it still preserves the features of authoritarianism. Another its prove is
Russia's wide support of authoritarian regimes: “拒否権を行使し、シリアの独裁者を守る国であ
る。”(Russia is the country exercised the right of veto protecting the dictator of Syria) 383; “中国、
ロシア、キューバという北朝鮮の後ろ盾となる国々”(countries like China, Cuba and Russia,
supporting the North Korea). Even though the communism came to an end, the world in the
discourse of Asahi Shinbun is still divided into two parts on the basis of (un)democracy: “ロシアや
中国はアサド政権、欧米は反体制派を支持しており、国連などによる政治的な解決が困難な状
378 Asahi Shinbun, 14 January 2013.
379 Asahi Shinbun, 28 August 2013.
380 Asahi Shinbun, 28 March 2013.
381 Asahi Shinbun, 5 April 2013.
382 Asahi Shinbun, 28 August 2013.
383 Asahi Shinbun, 14 September 2013.
108
況。”(Russia and China support the regime of Assad, the US and Europe support rebels. In this
situation the UN struggles to find a political solution)384.
As division and rivalry are another feature of Russia's foreign and internal policies, laws are
accepted and actions are taken in order to assert itself on the international scene, and the modern
situation inside the country cannot be called stable: “外交上の意地の張り合いからつくられたこの
法律は、ロシアで孤児の保護に取り組んできた市民団体や野党の反発を招いた。” (The law, born
due to the diplomatic rivalry, created a backlash of the opposition and citizen groups taking care of
orphans)385. The situation in the Russia-US relations is comparable with the Cold War era, which
proves the thesis of the world divided into two in the discourse of the Japanese newspaper: “米ロ
両国が人権問題を契機に、お互いに自国への入国を禁じる相手国人物の「ブラックリスト」を発
表した。冷戦時代の外交官追放合戦をほうふつとさせる騒動は、人権問題が依然米ロ関係の火種
としてくすぶる実態を浮き彫りにした。” (Triggered by the human rights issue, the USA and
Russia announced a “black list” persons prohibited the entry to Russia or to the USA. The uproar
reminiscent of the Cold War era diplomat expulsion battle reviled that the human rights issue still
smolders the live coals of Russia-US relations)386.
The foreign policy is determined by the struggle for the influence in East Asia, wherein
Russia is one of the key political players. “米国やロシア、中国、インドはいずれも大国で、それぞ
れ正統な国益をこの地域に持っている。我々の成長や安定、安全保障に関心を持つ以上、こうし
た国々を締め出すことはできない。”(Being superpower, the USA, Russia, China and India all
have the legitimate national interests in the region (East Asia). Taking into consideration our
growth, stability and interest towards security, it is not possible to exclude these countries) 387.
Foreign policies are defined by the protection of national interests, even by cost of
censorship or worsening of the Japan-Russia relations: “ロシア・サハリン州ユジノサハリンス
クの空港で、税関職員が日本人旅行者から北方領土に関する小冊子２冊を押収した。北方領土を
日本領とした地図が掲載されていることなどから「国益と安全保障を害し、持ち込みは違法」と
している。” (At the airport of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Sakhalin, Russia, customs officials confiscated
2 booklets about the Northern Territories, brought by Japanese travelers. Since they contain maps,
identifying Northern Territories as the Japanese territory, “they harm national interests and security,
and hence bringing them is illegal”)388.
As many other facets of Russia's social life, its policies are described as incomprehensible
and unpredictable. Even such natural phenomenon as time in Russia can be changed at politics
384 Ibidem.
385 Asahi Shinbun, 12 July2013.
386 Asahi Shinbun, 17 April 2013.
387 Asahi Shinbun, 23 April 2013.
388 Asahi Shinbun, 15 May 2013.
109
whim: “ロシアの時間は、国際関係や、政治・経済的な要因で、いつでも変わりうる。[...]たびた
び針を動かすロシアには、私たちに分かりづらい国家運営の難しさがある。”(The time in Russia
may vary any moment depending on international relations, politics and economic factors. […] We
can hardly understand such feature of national administration as the fact that Russia often moves
the clock hands)389.
Slot “human rights”
The slot is actualized by the lexeme “人権 jinken”　and in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun is
usually mentioned in the word-combination “人権問題 jinkenmondai”.
The human right issues are described as being one of the core features of Russia as a
state: “広大な国土に長い国境。そこに暮らす多民族、そして多宗教。根深い官僚主義に、「西」
が許さない人権問題。いくつもの課題をロシアが抱えるのは事実だ。”(Vast land and its long
border. Multi-ethnic and multi-religious. The deep-rooted bureaucracy and human rights issues,
which cannot be forgiven by the “West”. The reality is that there are several issues which Russia
challenges)390; they are one of the reason behind “anti-Russian” acts and still existing visa system
in the EU: “米国は昨年末、冷戦の遺物だった対ロシア通商制限条項を撤廃した。一方で対ロ人権
制裁法を設けた。”(The last year the USA abolished trade limitations against Russia, which were
the relics of the Cold War. On the other hand, it established the Sanctions Act against the human
rights violation in Russia) 391; the human right violation penetrate all society, from homosexuals to
prisoners, and a momentary indulgence is seen solely as an act of PR: “ この日釈放されたのはマ
リヤ・アリョヒナさん（２５）とナジェージダ・トロコンニコワさん（２４）。アリョヒナさん
は地元メディアに「恩赦は人道的な措置ではなく、（政権の）ＰＲだ。」と語り、トロコンニコ
ワさんは「今後は受刑者の人権保護のために活動したい」と明かした。”(Today Maria Alyohina
(25) and Nadejda Tolokonnikova (24) (the members of “Pussy Riot” band) were released from the
prison. As Alyohina told the local press “the amnesty was not for the sake of humanity, it was PR of
the government”. Tolokonnikova revealed that in future she “would like to work for the human rights
protection of prisoners”)392.
Table 10.
Subframe “characteristics of the state”.
Subframe
Characteristics
the state
Slot
of Politics
27.5
Freedom
19
Power of the state
12.5
389 Asahi Shinbun, 3 January 2013.
390 Asahi Shinbun, 11 September 2013.
391 Asahi Shinbun, 17 April 2013.
392 Asahi Shinbun, 24 December 2013.
110
%
Democracy
10.5
Law
10
Elections
9
Human rights
7.5
Fasces
4
3.2.2. Subframe “structure of public authorities”
The structure of Russia's public authorities is represented in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun
in a non-discrete way: the State Duma, the Federal Assembly of Russia and their committees are
almost not mentioned, and often substituted by the generic lexeme “ 政 府 seifu”(government,
administration). On the other hand, attention is paid to actions of local administrations and their
policies. The geography remains in the frame of interests of Japan: “サハリン州政府” saharinshū
seifu (administration of Sakhalin), “ ア ム ー ル 州 政 府 ” amūrushū seifu (administration of Amur
Oblast), “ロシア南クリル地区行政府” roshia minami kuriru chiku gyōseifu (Russia South Kuril
district administration), “ロシア沿海地方政府”roshia enkai chihō seifu (administration of Russia's
Primorsky Kray).　Slot “government”
Slot “government” is realized by lexemes “( ロ シ ア roshia) 政 府 seifu”and names of its
ministries: “ロシア文化省”roshia bunkashō (the Ministry of Culture of Russia), “ロシア緊急事態
省 ” roshia kinkyūjitaishō (Ministry of Emergency Situations), “ ロ シ ア 国 防 省 ” (Ministry of
Defense), “ロシア外務省” roshia kokubōshō (Ministry of Foreign Affairs); “経済が停滞する欧州か
ら成長著しいアジアへ経済の軸足をシフトさせようと、プーチン氏は昨年５月に極東開発事業を
統括する極東発展省を創設。”(In order to shift the pivot of economy from economically stagnant
Europe to rapidly growing Asia, the last May Putin founded the Ministry of Far East Development
which aim is to control the development of the region)393.
Russian government is described as a human being playing various roles:
1. an owner: “ 政 府 系 「 ロ シ ア 新 聞 ” seifukei roshia shinbun (governmental newspaper
“Rossiyskaya gazeta”), “政府系メディア” seifukei media (governmental media), “政府系
天然ガス企業「ガスプロム」” seifukei tennen gasu kigyō gasupuromu (governmental
natural gas company “Gazprom”);
2. a businessman: “ロシア極東アムール州で北朝鮮と同州政府系企業で設立した合弁企業が
約１千ヘクタールの土地を確保し” (About 1 thousand hectares of land was reserved for
393 Asahi Shinbun, 1 September 2013.
111
a joint company of North Korea and Administration of Amur Oblast in Russia's Far East
Amur Oblast)394. “論争の背景にはロシアの関与をめぐる駆け引きも取りざたされている。
ベ レ ネ 原 発 の 建 設 は 、 前 政 権 時 代 に ロ シ ア 政 府 系 の 原 発 建 設 会 社 が 受 注 。 ” (The
construction of Belene nuclear power plant was commissioned to the power plant
constitution company of the Russian government of the former regime)395;
3. a supporter of proper citizens and travelers from abroad: “インフラ整備で「ロシア化」は
進み、住民はロシア政府の後ろ盾を強調する。”(As “russification” of the region proceeds
along with infrastructure development, the residents emphasize the support of Russian
government)396; “国籍、人種、性的指向に関係なく、すべての人が大会を楽しめるよう、政
府 は あ ら ゆ る こ と を す る 。 ” (The government does everything, so that everyone,
regardless of their nationality, race, sexual orientation could enjoy the Olympic games)397;
4. mental state of the government is actualized by means of the metaphor “政府の立場”: “政
府の立場を十分わきまえた上で、いろいろなメッセージを発信していると思う。”(In
order to discern fully the position of the government, a variety of messages should be
disseminated)398.　The lexeme “ 幹 部
kanbu” (executives) is a frozen vegetative metaphor, describing
functionaries as a trunk (base, backbone) of Russian government, included in semantics of the
morpheme “幹 kan”: “ロシア政府高官や幹部の別荘も立ち並ぶ。”(Villas of Russian government
officials and executives either stand (in Sochi) in a row)399.
The morpheme “下 ka” in the text fragment “ロシア政府がシリアに対し、化学兵器を国際
管理下に置くよう提案したことについて、オバマ米大統領は９日、「実現するなら（攻撃回避
は）可能だ。”(Russian government proposed to put under international control the situation with
chemical weapons in Syria. Concerning it President Obama claimed that “if it is achieved it may be
possible to avoid the attack”) 400 indicates a subordinate position of Russia's government to the
international community.
Slot “Kremlin”
The slot is realized by the designation of Kremlin “ ク レ ム リ ン kuremurin”. Unlike in
Russian linguistic world-view, where Kremlin is often the symbol of Russia's state power, in the
discourse of Asahi Shinbun Kremlin is represented in its literal meaning – a historic complex in the
centre of Moscow, a venue of meetings at the official levels: “ １月３１日のクレムリン（大統領
394 Asahi Shinbun, 14 February 2013.
395 Asahi Shinbun, 28 January 2013.
396 Asahi Shinbun, 23 February 2013.
397 Asahi Shinbun, 30 October 2013.
398 Asahi Shinbun, 17 January 2013.
399 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
400 Asahi Shinbun, 10 September 2013.
112
府）での会議でメドベージェフ首相は、プーチン氏に今後５年間の１０の課題を報告した。” (At
the session which took place in Kremlin (Presidential Office) on January, 31, Prime-Minister D.
Medvedev reported to V. Putin 10 challenges of the future 5 years) 401. “モスクワのクレムリン。
プーチン氏は小さな丸テーブルに着いた森氏に、にこやかに語りかけた。” (Moscow Kremlin.
Putin had a friendly talk with Mori around a small round table). The necessity to explain the
meaning the word (Presidential Office) or its geographical location (Moscow Kremlin) indicates that
the word Kremlin belongs to the “Other” world in the Japanese world-view.
Slot “Federal Assembly”
The slot is represented by the designations of Russia's Duma “ 下 院 kain” and of the
Federal Council “ロシア議会 roshia gikai”, “連邦議会 renpō gikai”.
In the discourse of Asahi Shinbun Russia's Duma as a branch of authorities is apparently of
no interest. In the texts of the Japanese newspaper it is mentioned only in the combination with
names of Russian politicians: “連邦議会でナルイシキン下院議長と会談。”(A talk with the House
Speaker Narishkin in the Congress)402. “英国の決定を受けて、ロシア下院のプシュコフ国際問題委
員長（与党・統一ロシア）はツイッターに「米国は国際社会どころかＮＡＴＯを代表して発言す
る 権 利 も な く な っ た 」 と 書 き 込 ん だ 。 ” (In response to the decision of the United Kindom,
Pushkov (ruling party “United Russia”), the chairman of the International Affairs Commission of
Russia's Duma, wrote in Twitter: “the USA has no more right to speak on behalf of not only the
international community, but also of NATO”)403.
By means of the postposition から kara (from) the Federal Council is described as a starting
point, from where certain ideas, messages are disseminated in the outer world: “ロシア議会からは
「キャンセルで傷つくのは米国の方だ」といった強気な声も出るが、実際にはロシアにとって米
側と話し合うべきテーマには事欠かない。”(“The cancellation will hurt the US”, though confident
voice is heard from Russia's Congress, in fact there are many themes which Russia should
discuss with the US)404.
Slot “embassy”
The slot is represented by designations of Russians Embassies in Japan, Syria, Libya,
North Korea, etc. For instance: “この女性は「今シリアに残っているロシア人は、私のようにナイ
トクラブで働いているか、大使館の職員か、シリア人と結婚してここが生活の場になっている人
ぐ ら い」 と 話 した 。 ” (That woman said: “Nowadays Russians who remain in Syria or work in
401 Asahi Shinbun, 8 February 2013.
402 Asahi Shinbun, 1 May 2013.
403 Asahi Shinbun, 31 August 2013.
404 Asahi Shinbun, 9 August 2013.
113
night clubs like me, or work in the Embassy, or married to Syrian citizens”) 405. “リビアの首都トリポ
リで２日夜、武装集団がロシア大使館を襲撃し” (Russian Embassy was attacked by an armed
group in Libyan capital Tripoli in the evening, on October, 2)406.
Slot “political parties”
Multi-party political system of Russia in the studied discourse is roughly divided into two
groups: the ruling party “United Russia” (“ 与 党 ・ 統 一 ロ シ ア ” yotō tōitsuroshia) and all other
existing in Russia parties, opposed to the ruling party: “外交上の意地の張り合いからつくられたこ
の法律は、ロシアで孤児の保護に取り組んできた市民団体や野党の反発を招いた。” (The law,
born due to the diplomatic rivalry, created a backlash of the opposition and citizen groups taking
care of orphans)407; “野党「公正ロシア」” yatō kōsei roshia (opposition party “A Just Russia”).
Other parties mentioned in Asahi Shinbun are “ ロ シ ア 連 保 共 産 党 ” roshia renpo Kyōsantō
(Communist party of Russia) and “ロシア自由民主党”　roshia jiyūminshutō (Liberal democratic
party of Russia).
Slot “security agencies”
The slot is represented:
•
by groups of security services: “旧ソ連国家保安委員会（ＫＧＢ）の後継機関である連邦保
安 局 （ Ｆ Ｓ Ｂ ） ” (Federal Security Service (FSB), the successor of the Committee for
State Security (KGB)408; the officers of these services are described as having strong
values of patriotism and loyalty to the country: “ 旧ソ連国家保安委員会（ＫＧＢ）出身の
プーチン氏は国を裏切った情報部員に対して冷徹だ。” (Being an ex-officer of the former
Soviet Committee for State Security (KBG) Putin shows cool-headedness towards the
agent betrayed his country)409; “旧ソ連国家保安委員会（ＫＧＢ）のＯＢで、国家への忠誠
心を何よりも重視するプーチン氏” (ex-officer of KGB V. Putin more than anything else
appreciates the loyalty to the country)410.
•
by names of people who worked for those agencies: “ロシアのスパイアンナ・チャップマ
ン　(Russian spy Anna Chapman); ０６年にロシアの元情報将校リトビネンコ氏が、亡命
先のロンドンで変死した事件があったでしょ。”(In 2006 there was a case of unnatural
death of Russia's former intelligence officer Litvinenko in his exile in London)411.
Table 11.
405 Asahi Shinbun, 9 February 2013.
406 Asahi Shinbun, 4 October 2013.
407Asahi Shinbun, 12 July 2013.
408 Asahi Shinbun, 24 May 2013.
409 Asahi Shinbun, 3 May 2013.
410 Asahi Shinbun, 3 July 2013.
411 Asahi Shinbun, 9 January 2013.
114
Subframe “structures of public authorities”.
Subframe
Slot
%
Structures of public authorities
Government
67
Federal Assembly
17
Embassies
7.5
Political parties
5
Kremlin
2
Security agencies
1.5
3.2.3 Subframe “relations of Russia with other countries”
The subframe is represented by several slots divided according to groups of countries with
which Russia collaborates or competes.
The slot “Japan-Russia relations” unites designations of Japan-Russia relations, which are
actualized by means of lexemes “日ロ(間)” nitiro (kan) ((between) Japan and Russia), “日ロ関
係” nichiro kankei (Japan-Russia relations), “日本との関係” nihon to no kankei (relations with
Japan), “両国間” ryōkokukan (between two countries), “日ロ双方” nichiro sōhō (both
countries), etc. Collaboration/rivalry of Russia with foreign countries develops according to several
scenarios, classified on basis of relations which they describe.
Slot “Japan-Russia relations”
Most scenarios of Japan-Russia relations derive from attempts to solve the Kuril Islands
dispute or on the impossibility to do it because of opposite standpoints of two countries: “四島は日
本領と主張しつつ、それをロシアが認めれば返還は必ずしも即時・一括でなくてもいいという立
場 だ 。 ” (Japan still claims that four islands belong to Japanese territory, but if Russia
acknowledges it, it will not be necessary to return them immediately and all at a time) 412; “ロシアは
相変わらず「第２次大戦の結果、北方領土はロシア領になった」と主張し、島のインフラ整備や
開発を積極的に進めている。”(In the same way Russia claims that “Northern Territories became
Russian territory as a result of the Second World War, and is actively developing the islands and
their infrastructure”)413.
Scenario of development is represented, for instance, in the following text fragments: “首脳
412 Asahi Shinbun, 11 September 2013.
413 Asahi Shinbun, 11 January 2013.
115
対話 を活性化させ、北 方領土問題の解決と両 国関係の 進展へとつな げたい。 ” (It would be
favorable to connect the Northern Territories issue settlement and the development of relations
between two countries with the activation of the dialogue between two leaders.) “領土問題は「相互
に受け入れ可能な解決を模索する」としながら前進はなかった。” (It is impossible to make
progress in the relations (between two countries) if we do not find a mutually acceptable solution of
the territorial issue)414; “北方領土をめぐり、かつてない打開の機会があると見られたロシアからも
批判の声があがり、日本との関係を進めようという力を大きく減らしてしまいました。” (Given
that it was seen in Russia as a possibility of unprecedented breakthrough in the South Kuril
dispute, voices of criticism rise from there and the force of advancement of Japan-Russia relations
has significantly reduced)415. The identification of this scenario is based on lexemes “進展 shinten”
(progress, development), “前進 zenshin” (advance, drive, progress), “進める susumeru” (advance,
promote, encourage). The development of relations between two countries are represented as
being dependent directly on the South Kuril dispute settlement.
Scenario of path is represented in the text fragment “日ロ、仕切り直しの一歩。　領土交渉
「 真 ん 中 に 戻 さ な い と 」 。 ” (Japan and Russia, one step towards a fresh start. Territorial
negotiations “with no return to the mid-way”) 416, by means of metaphors that have semantics of
movement: “仕切り直しの一歩” (一歩: one movement of a leg; one step; a journey of thousand
miles begins with a single step) and “真ん中に戻さない”(戻す: to move toward a place where one
used to be, to return) 417, which describe Japan-Russia relations as a way which both countries
must go towards each other.
Scenario of partnership is represented by the following text fragments: “ 協議会は、日ロ
双方の経済団体、研究機関、金融機関がコアメンバーとなって情報交換し、ロシア極東と主に日
本の地方にある中小企業の間でのビジネス機会の創出をめざす。” (The convention aims at the
creation of Japan-Russia co-membership in economic organizations, research institutions, financial
institutions and the information exchange; it aims at the creation of business opportunities
between small and medium-size enterprises in the Russian Far East and in Japanese regions) 418;
“軍事面で強大化する中国や、核開発を続ける北朝鮮は、日本と同様、ロシアの脅威になりつつあ
る。それへの牽制（けんせい）という意味でも、協力の拡大は両国の利害が一致する。” (As well
as for Japan, military powerful China and continuing the nuclear development North Korea are
becoming threats for Russia. The expansion of Japan-Russia cooperation as a restraint coincides
414 Asahi Shinbun, 23 February 2013.
415 Asahi Shinbun, 29 January 2013.
416 Asahi Shinbun, 15 April 2013.
417 Daijirin daisanpan, (www.kotobank.jp)
418 Asahi Shinbun, 30 September 2013.
116
with the interests of two countries) 419; “記憶の継承で日ロが協力できれば、新しい貴重な交流とな
る。”(If Russia and Japan inherit the memory and manage to cooperate it would become a new
valuable exchange)420.
Relations on equal terms are actualized by means of lexemes “日ロ双方” nichiro sōhō (双
方: having mutual relations, both), “ 交換” kōkan (to exchange things, to exchange) 421, “協力”
kyōryoku, presuming process of mutual actions: exchange, collaboration and existence of partners.
The exchange with Russia is positively assessed as “valuable” (貴重 kichō).
Scenario of abnormal situation is realized my means of the lexeme “異常な事態 ijōna jitai”
(abnormal situation) in the following text fragments: “プーチン氏は「両国間に平和条約がないこと
は 異 常 な 事 態 だ 」 と 語 り 、 北 方 領 土 問 題 の 解 決 に も 意 欲 を 示 し た 。 ” (Putin said that “The
absence of peace treaty between two countries is an abnormal situation” and showed his
willingness to resolve the Northern Territories issue) 422; “プーチン氏のいう両国間の「異常な事態」
は解消されず、幅広い協力は立ちゆかない。そのことを、プーチン氏は理解すべきだ。”(Without
resolving Japan-Russia “abnormal situation” as Putin says, the collaboration on a large scale will
not last)423. The quote of Russian president becomes in texts of the Japanese newspaper a
negative assessment of the state of affairs in the relations between two countries.
Anthropomorphous metaphor “ 協 力 は 立 ち ゆ か な い ” is used in order to describe collaboration
between Japan and Russia.
Scenario of economic dependence of Russia from Japan is represented by such variants of
dependence as necessity of Japan's funds, technologies and markets: “極東やシベリアの開発で、
日本の資金や技術の引き入れは欠かせない。米国のシェールガス革命のあおりでロシアの天然ガ
スは欧州市場で供給が減り、日本はじめアジア市場への売り込みも必要になってい
る 。 ” (Japanese funds and technologies are indispensable in the development of the Far East
and Siberia. Under the influence of the United States shale gas revolution the supply of Russia's
natural gas in Europe has reduced, and hard selling in Asian markets – Japanese first of all – has
become necessary)424. “ロシアはいま、台頭する中国への対応や、エネルギー資源の売り込み、極
東・シベリア開発などで日本との関係強化が必要になりつつある。”(In response to the growth of
China nowadays Russia feels the necessity of strengthening the relations with Japan in order to
419 Asahi Shinbun, 25 January 2013.
420 Asahi Shinbun, 9 January 2013.
421 Daijirin daisanpan, (www.kotobank.jp)
422 Asahi Shinbun, 23 February 2013.
423 Asahi Shinbun, 24 February 2013.
424 Asahi Shinbun, 1 June 2013.
117
advance with the development of the Far East and Siberia and to sell energy resources)425.
Scenario of opposition is represented by the lexeme “ 改 善 kaizen” (improvement), which
presumes that now relations are not good and need to be changed: “いまプーチン氏があらためて
日本との関係改善を望む背景には、現在のロシアの抱える経済や安全保障上の事情がある” (In
the background of Putin's willingness to improve the relations with Japan there are economic and
security issues which today's Russia must face) 426. “これで日ロ関係が抜本的に改善されれば日本
の安 全保障やエネ ルギ ー問題にもプ ラスだし、日本の対中 国ポジシ ョンの強 化にもつなが
る。”(If relations between Japan and Russia could be fundamentally improved, it would influence
positively not only Japan's energy and security issues, but would also strengthen Japans position
towards China)427.
Overall, Russia is represented as a country having several military and economic threats
(China, North Korea, the USA), needing Japan's help, but not ready to change its position
concerning the fundamental Northern Territories issue. On the other hand, the possibility of
improvement and cooperation with Russia as considered by Asahi Shinbun as valuable and useful.
Slot “relations of Russia with Europe/the West” unites designations of Russia's relations
with European countries or Europe and America, actualized by means of lexemes “ 欧 州
Ōshū”(Europe), “欧米 Ōbei”(the West) and names of countries.
Scenario of emotional relations:
“ソ連崩壊から２１年たっても欧州に入れない。なぜロシアはいつも片思いなのか。”(21 years
after the collapse of the USSR, Russia is still not in Europe. Why Russia's love is always onesided?)428; “欧州はロシアを分かっていない。”(Europe does not understand Russia)429; “なぜロシ
アにフランス本国もうらやむほどの名画があるのか”　(Why does Russia have such famous art
works that even France envies it?) 430. Scenario represents emotions which one country or region
feels towards another. Russia is described as incomprehensible and enviable country. On the other
hand, its love towards Europe has always been unrequited. The text fragment shows for Japan
Russia and Europe are opposed to each other, Russia is not Europe.
Scenario of tolerant and close relations is based on the identification of similarity between
countries, reconciliation of differences between them: “ロシアとキプロスは同じ東方正教の文化圏
で、互いに親近感がある。”(As Russia and Cyprus both belong to the cultural sphere of Eastern
425 Asahi Shinbun, 20 June 2013.
426 Asahi Shinbun, 19 July 2013.
427 Asahi Shinbun, 2 August 2013.
428 Asahi Shinbun, 5 January 2013.
429 Asahi Shinbun, 10 September 2013.
430 Asahi Shinbun, 5 January 2013.
118
Orthodoxy, there is a sense of intimacy between them)431.
Scenario of business relations describes relations based on common business interests
between two countries: “欧州は天然ガスの４分の１をロシアに頼り、ロシアから欧州に送られる
量の８割はウクライナ経由だった。”(One quarter of natural gas in Europe is supplied by Russia,
and 80% of it were sent from Russia to Europe via Ukraine)432.
Scenario of aid is realized in text fragments that describe such relations between two
countries where one country render aid to another, for instance: “第２次大戦をめぐり、ロシアは前
身のソ連の役割をファシスト国家のナチス・ドイツと日本から、欧州とアジアを解放した立役者
と位置づける。”(In the context of the Second World War, Russia positions the role of its ancestor
USSR as one of the country that liberated Europe and Asia from fascist governments of Nazi
Germany and Japan)433.
Scenario of opposition: “ソ連崩壊後、ウクライナは常にロシアと欧州の間で揺れ動いてき
た 。 ” (After the collapse of the USSR Ukraine has always been wavering between Russia and
Europe)434. “シリアの反体制派を支援する欧米は、ロシアがアサド政権に攻撃用兵器を供給してい
るとの疑念を抱いている。”(While the West supports Syrian rebels, Russia is being doubtful and
supplies regime of Assad with weapons)435. The scenario verifies that Russia does not belong
neither to Europe not to the “Western world”.
Slot “relations of Russia with Asia” is represented by designations of relations with
China, North Korea and Asia in general.
Scenario of tolerant relations represents a notion of equality of Russia and countries of
Asia, which is actualized by means of a list of names, separated by comma as homogeneous parts
of a sentence: “中国、ロシア、韓国、北朝鮮、モンゴル、日本は経済交流の現状と展望を２日間
の日 程で 話し合う 。” (During two days China, Russia, South Korea, North Korea, Mongolia and
Japan will discuss the state of affairs and prospects of economic exchange) 436. The text fragment
“中国、ロシア、キューバという北朝鮮の後ろ盾となる国々” (countries like China, Cuba and
Russia, supporting the North Korea) describes collaboration between Russia, China and Cuba and
implies their opposition to the US and Europe.
Scenario of economic dependence describes relations of dependence of Russia on another
country, or vise versa: “ロシアはアジア向けの輸出を増やしたい。”(Russia wants to increase the
exports to Asia)437; “ロシアは北朝鮮への債務帳消しやパイプライン敷設などの経済支援をてこに、
431 Asahi Shinbun, 21 March 2013.
432 Asahi Shinbun, 17 November 2013.
433 Asahi Shinbun, 28 December 2013.
434 Asahi Shinbun, 13 December 2013.
435 Asahi Shinbun, 16 December 2013.
436 Asahi Shinbun, 3 March 2013.
437 Asahi Shinbun, 20 January 2013.
119
朝鮮半島を巡る北東アジアの安保問題に関与し、存在感を示そうとしてきた。” (On the plea of
debt cancellation, pipeline installation and other types of economic assistance towards North
Korea, Russia got involved into security issues in the Korean Peninsula and has been trying to
show its presence there)438.
Scenario of opposition is represented, for instance, as a seamy side of partnership: “しかし、
表向きの「蜜月ぶり」とは裏腹に、ロシアには警戒感も見え隠れする。軍事費の増加や海洋進出
の動きなど、東アジアでの中国の「膨張」に神経をとがらせているからだ 。”(However, contrary
to the outward appearance of the “honeymoon”, the sense of caution awakes in Russia. The
reason underlying the increase in military expenditure and and steps forward of the navy is China's
“swelling” in eastern Asia, getting on Russia's nerves) 439. Anthropomorphous metaphors describe
Russia-Chinese relations as marriage (honeymoon), and Russia as a human proving various
emotions: anxiety, irritation. The text fragment illustrates either the scenario of emotional relations.
Scenario of diplomatic value: “中国にとって、[...] ロシアとの関係は、経済成長を支える
エネルギー供給国としてだけでなく、外交的にも重要度を増している。”(For China [...] Russia is
not just the source of energy supporting its economic growth, but it also becomes important
diplomatically)440.
Scenario of business relationships: “ロシア極東アムール州で北朝鮮と同州政府系企業で設
立した合弁企業が約１千ヘクタールの土地を確保し”(About 1 thousand hectares of land was
reserved for a joint company of North Korea and Administration of Amur Oblast in Russia's Far
East Amur Oblast)441.
Slot “relations of Russia with the USA” is represented by means of the lexeme “ 米 ロ
beiro”. In the discourse of Asahi Shinbun Russia-US relations are characterized, first of all, by their
constant rivalry and opposition, despite of attempts to improve them. Texts fragments mentioning
Russia-US relations are full of metaphors and emotionally marked vocabulary.
Scenario of opposition: “ロシアでは、第１期のオバマ政権がメドベージェフ前大統領との
間で関係を修復した「米ロ関係のリセット」の行方に関心が集まっている。” (During the first
period of President Obama, his administration and ex-President Medvedev concentrated their
attention on the advancement of “US-Russia relations reset” which was supposed to repair the
relations between two countries)442. The relations are described as something that need “reset”,
technical metaphor “関係を修復した”(repaired relations) represents the US-Russia relations as a
mechanism that was broken and need repair.
438 Asahi Shinbun, 13 February 2013.
439 Asahi Shinbun, 23 March 2013.
440 Asahi Shinbun, 22 March 2013.
441 Asahi Shinbun, 14 February 2013.
442 Asahi Shinbun, 23 January 2013.
120
“こじれる米ロ。米ロ間の緊張が高まっている。”(The US and Russia turned soar. The
tension between the US and Russia has been growing) 443. The alimentary metaphor “こじれる米
ロ”describes the US and Russia as a product which can turn soar. “オバマ米大統領が欠席したこ
と で 米 ロ 関 係 は 傷 つ い た 。 ” (The US-Russia relations have been hurt by the absence of the
President Obama)444. A criminal metaphor is used in the following text fragment in order to describe
the actions of the US towards Russia: “ロシアから（亡命容認以外の）選択肢を奪ったのは米国
だ。”(The US deprived Russia of choice (other than exile acceptance)445.
Scenario of emotional relations: “そもそも原因をつくったうえ、９月の米ロ首脳会談見送
りも示唆する米国の強硬な姿勢に、ロシア側はいら立ちを隠さない。”(Russia does not hide its
irritation towards vigorous approach of the US, which first has invented reasons and now hints that
the US-Russia summit scheduled in September may be postponed)446.
Slot “relations of Russia with countries of the Near and the Middle East” is
represented by designation of relations with Syria and Afghanistan. The relations with both
countries are represented widely, but similarly. In connection with the Soviet intervention in
Afghanistan the relations with this country develop in the frame of “opposition” scenario in its
extreme manifestation – war, threat: “来年に米軍が撤退する予定のアフガニスタン情勢。テロや麻
薬の拡散はロシアにとって直接の脅威だ 。” (The next year the US plans to withdraw its army from
Afghanistan. For Russia its a direct threat, promising drugs and terrorism dissemination) 447; “旧ソ連
が３０年以上前に侵攻したアフガニスタンで、行方不明になっていたソ連軍兵士の一人がアフガ
ニスタンで生存しているのが確認された。” (It was confirmed that one of the missing soldiers
lives in Afghanistan, which former Soviet Union invaded more than 30 years ago)448.
Russia-Syria relations are described as evolving in the frame of “collaboration” scenario: “ロ
シアがかたくなに「アサド退陣」に応じなかったのは、旧ソ連時代からのシリアとの戦略的関係
があ るか らだ 。 ” (Because of its strategic relations with Syria established in the Soviet period,
Russia stubbornly did not react to the “Assad resignation”)449.
Slot “relations of Russia with former Soviet republics” is represented by designation of
relations with Ukraine and Giorgia.
Scenario of economic dependence: “ 一方ウクライナでは、経済面でロシアに過度に依
存することへの懸念が出ている。” (On one hand, the anxiety concerns the fact that Ukraine is
443 Asahi Shinbun, 3 August 2013.
444 Asahi Shinbun, 6 August 2013.
445 Asahi Shinbun, 20 August 2013.
446 Asahi Shinbun, 3 August 2013.
447 Asahi Shinbun, 5 September 2013.
448 Asahi Shinbun, 8 March 2013.
449 Asahi Shinbun, 19 June 2013.
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overly dependent on Russia economically)450.
Scenario of tolerance and opposition: “地理的にロシアに近い東部は親ロシア、欧州に近い
西 部 は 親 欧州 の人 が 多 いと みら れて きた 。 ” (Geographically close to Russia, eastern part of
Ukraine is seen as pro-Russian, while western part, close to Europe, is considered proEuropean)451. “ロシアもグルジアも元々近い関係なのに、一部のおかしな指導者が台無しにす
る 。 ” (Close by nature Russia-Giorgia relations were ruined by some of odd leaders)452. A
negative assessment of two countries leaders is actualized by the lexeme “おかし okashi” (odd).
Scenario of opposition: “２００８年にロシアとグルジアが衝突した「グルジア紛争」から５年
あまり。”(5 years have passed since Russia and Giorgia collided in the “Giorgia conflict”)453.
Table 12.
Scenarios of Russia's relations with other countries.
Japan
Europe and Asia
USA
“the West”
Middle
and Former
Near East
Soviet
republics
opposition
+
+
+
+
+
+
collaboration +
-
-
-
+
-
abnormal
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
situation
path
+
business
-
+
aid
-
+
tolerance
-
+
+
-
-
+
emotions
-
+
+
+
-
-
development +
-
-
-
-
-
partnership
+
-
-
-
-
-
economic
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
-
dependence
diplomatic
value
Table 13.
Subframe “relations of Russia with other countries”.
Subframe
450 Asahi Shinbun, 19 December 2013.
451 Asahi Shinbun, 13 August 2013.
452 Asahi Shinbun, 8 August 2013.
453 Ibidem.
122
Slot
%
Relations of Russia with other Japan-Russia relations
countries
37.5
Relations with Asia
21
Relations with Europe
17
US-Russia relations
10.5
Relations with Middle/Near East
9
Relations with former Soviet republics
5
The relations with Japan are represented in a more detailed way than relations with other
countries. As it is seen from the table 12 most frequent scenario is “opposition”, which is developed
in every category. Even seemingly friendly relations with Asian countries, in actual facts turn out to
have elements of opposition, doubt, lack of trust. Emotional relations are typical of Russia's
relations with Europe and the USA, and the emotions are primarily negative. Economic relations of
Russia are expressed by its dependence from Japan and interdependence with Asia. Diplomatilly it
is valuable only for China.
3.2.4. Subframe “defense”
The subframe has a complex and detailed structure, it consists of a system of slots, each of
which includes a group of designations of realities of this sphere of the country's social life. The
image of Russia as a militarized society, a country in a state of a permanent war, opposed to
different countries and to the proper regions (Chechnya, Dagestan), occupies an important place in
the representation of modern Russia.
Slot “Army”
The denominations included in this slot are “ロシア軍 roshiagun” (Russian army), “軍 gun/
軍隊 guntai”(Russian army, forces), “ 旧ソ連軍 kyūsorengun” (former Soviet army), often followed
by the assessment vocabulary:
1.
“極東地域のロシア軍は通常の警戒レベルを維持しているという。”　(Russian troops in
the Far East maintain normal alert level)454.
2.
The description of actions of the Soviet army in the Korean Peninsula and in Soviet
internment camps
abounds in emotionally marked vocabulary.
Indeed, the experience of
internment of 600,000 Japanese in Soviet camps remains one of the main reasons underlying
negative attitude of the Japanese towards Russia 455: “朝鮮半島北部にも旧ソ連軍が進駐。日本人は
収容所に連行された。銃を突きつけて略奪と暴行をする軍、寒さと飢え、同胞の盗みや密告……。
収容所の生活は、出口のない暗闇だった 。” (The former Soviet Union troops also occupied the
454 Asahi Shinbun, 11 April 2013.
455 BOYCHENKO, Area studies: Japan.
123
north of the Korean Peninsula. The Japanese were taken to internment camps. These were troops
resorting to arms in order to loot and use violence. Cold and hunger, stealing and betrayal of
compatriots. Life of camps was the dark with no exit) 456. The text fragment illustrates the notion of
the USSR/Russia as a country-invader.
3.
The anthropomorphous metaphor “手も足も出ない te mo ashi mo denai” (to be at one's
wit's end) is used in order to describe Russian troops in the state of confusion and inability to act:
“南オセチアの 防衛を事実上担うロシア軍が手も足 も出ない。” (Virtually responsible for the
defense of South Ossetia Russian army is at its wit's end)457.
4.
Russia is described as being in the opposition with Japan and the US (which, on the other
hand, play a role of partners). The verb “ 確 認 す る ” kakuninsuru (check, validate) implies the
superiority of the Russian army (in terms of equipment, proficiency) over the Chinese one: “ロシ
ア軍にとって今回の演習は、日米両国にロシアの存在感を見せつけると同時に、中国軍の装備や
練度を間近で確認するという意味合いもありそうだ。” (Probably, for Russia this military exercise
is not only the way to show its presence to Japan and the US, but also to check at a short distance
equipment and proficiency of China's troops)458.
Slot “navy”
The navy is designated with the lexeme “ ロシ ア 海 軍 roshia kaigun”. Given the fact that
there is a maritime boundary between Russia and Japan, Russian navy and its actions attract
attention of the Japanese newspaper, for instance: “ロシア海軍の太平洋艦隊が、ウラジオストク
沖の日本海やサハリン島と大陸間のタタール海峡、カムチャツカ半島周辺の北太平洋で海上軍事
演習を続けている。[...]極東海域でのロシア海軍の存在感を示す狙いがありそうだ。”(Pacific
Fleet of the Russian Navy continued military exercise in the Sea of Japan off the cost of
Vladivostok, in the Tatar Strait between the continent and Sakhalin, and in the north Pacific Ocean
around Kamchatka Peninsula. [...] It is likely to be aimed at indicating the presence of the Russian
Navy in the Far East waters)459.
Slot “military equipment”
The slot is represented by common designations of military equipments and weaponry, for
instance: “戦闘機” sentōki (fighter aircraft), “攻撃用兵器” kōgekiyō heiki (attack weapon), “艦
船” kansen (warship), “対空防衛システム” taikū bōei shisutemu (anti aircraft defense system),
etc.:
1.
“今回の演習は９日から１５日間の日程で、艦船約４０隻、軍用機約２０機、兵員約３千
人 が 参 加 し て い る 。 ” (In this military exercise, which is going to last from 9 to 15 days, will
456 Asahi Shinbun, 17 December 2013.
457 Asahi Shinbun, 2 April 2013.
458 Asahi Shinbun, 9 July 2013.
459 Asahi Shinbun, 16 August 2013.
124
participate about 40 warships, 20 aircrafts and about 3 thousand soldiers and officers)460.
2.
“シリアへの供与の有無をめぐって情報が交錯しているロシア製高性能地対空ミサイルシ
ステム「Ｓ３００」について、ロシア紙ベドモスチは５月３１日、軍事産業筋の話として、２０
１０年に４組の同システムの供与契約が結ばれたが、今秋までは納品はないと伝えた。” (The
information concerning the existence of supply in Syria of Russian high-performance surface-to-air
missile systems “S300” was confused. Talking about the military industry muscle, the Russian
newspaper “Vedomosti” reports on May, 31 that although the contract on the supply of 4 systems
was signed in 2010, they were not delivered till this fall) 461. The metaphor “ 軍 事 産 業 筋 ” gunji
sangyōkin (military industry muscle) implies the importance of this sphere for the Russian defense
and for Russian economy in general. In numerous text fragments of Asahi Shinbun Russia is
represented as a country-supplier of weaponry (to Syria, China, North Korea), making it one of the
pivots of Russia's economy.
Slot “personnel”
The slot is represented by lexemes “ ロ シ ア 兵 roshiahei” (Russian soldiers), “ ソ 連 兵
sorenhei” (Soviet soldiers). Russian soldiers in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun are deprived of
humanity: they are brutal, cruel and look like evils.
1.
“ロシア兵の蛮行、朝鮮人からのいじめなど、この間の体験は今もトラウマとなってい
る。”(Even today the experience of brutality of Russian soldiers and bullying of Koreans are still
traumatic)462.
2.
“軍国少年だった僕は、「ロシア人はつまらん。日本人が一番だ」と片言のロシア語で言
い、 親指 を立てた。 ソ連兵 は鬼のような形相で 僕 を 殴る。 ” (Being a boy from the militarist
country I prattled in Russian “Russians are fools. The Japanese are the best”, and rose my thumb.
A soviet soldier beat me with a devil-like face)463.
Slot “military activities”
The slot consists of Russia's military activities designations. It includes military operations
of Russia, for instance “衝突” shōtotsu (conflict), “軍事介入” gunji kainyū (military intervention),
“進駐” shinchū (occupation), etc. and economic activities of Russia in the military sphere: “軍事費
の増加” (increase in military expenditure). The examples of this slot illustrate the notion of Russia
as an invader, both in its Soviet past: “ 旧 ソ 連 が ３ ０ 年 以 上 前 に 侵 攻 し た ア フ ガ ニ ス タ ン ”
(Afghanistan, invaded by the USSR 30 years ago), and today:
1. “ ２ ０ ０ ８ 年 に ロ シ ア と 軍 事 衝 突 し た グ ル ジ ア で は 昨 年 の 総 選 挙 で 野 党 が 勝 利 。 ” (The
460 Ibidem.
461 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
462 Asahi Shinbun, 4 September 2013.
463 Asahi Shinbun, 18 December 2013.
125
opposition won in the general election in Giorgia, which in 2008 had a military conflict with
Russia)464.
2. “ロシア軍は装備を近代化する一方、大幅な兵力削減と機構の簡素化を進めた。” (While
modernizing its military equipment, Russia proceeds significant troops reduction and system
simplification)465.
3. “ソチは、独立を主張するチェチェン共和国や、軍事衝突のあった南オセチア自治州から近く、
治 安 上 の 不 安 も あ る 。 ” (The security of Sochi is doubtful because claiming its independence
Chechen republic and South Ossetia, where a military conflict took place, are just around the
corner)466.
Table 14.
Subframe “defence”.
Subframe
Slot
%
Defense
Military activities
41
Military equipment
23.5
Army
18
Navy
12
Personnel
5,5
3.2.5. Subframe “economy of Russia”
Subframe represents a reductive structure of the concept “Russia”. Being a part of the
frame “Russia is a state”, at the same time the subframe shows features of an independent
concept: in a concise form it represents various features of the concept “state's economy”. For
instance, it represents a feature of economy's compounds (composed of regional economies,
sectors of economy): “ 政治も経済もモスクワへの一極集中は激しい。” (The political life and
economy are intensively concentrated in Moscow) 467. “地域経済の活性化に貢献したい。” (I
would like to contribute to the development of regional economy)468.
Ascription of features of a car, ship, aircraft to the economy is actualized by the metaphoric
model “economy is a vehicle”: “投資が逃げれば、経済成長のエンジンをなくしてしまう。” (If
investments run away, the economic growth (of the Far East) will be deprived of its engine)469.
Depending on the focus of interests of the newspaper's journalists Russian economy, can
be, for instance petrol economy: “ガソリン経済”, “ロシアの「カジノ経済」”(Russia's “casino
464 Asahi Shinbun, 23 May 2013.
465 Asahi Shinbun, 18 July 2013.
466 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
467 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
468 Asahi Shinbun, 31 July 2013.
469 Asahi Shinbun, 20 October 2013.
126
economy”).
On the basis of features ascribed to economy several slot of the subframe “economy of
Russia” were identified.
Slot “economy” unites into a single group common designations of the economic sphere
based on inconcrete, general knowledge, for instance: “「安全保障、極東シベリア地域を含む互恵
的経済協力などあらゆる分野で協力したい」と伝え、領土問題以外の分野を進展させ、関係を強
化することに意欲を示した。”(“I would like to develop economic cooperation in various fields,
such as security and mutually beneficial economic cooperation that would concerning the Far East
and Siberia”, (prime-minister Abe) conveyed his willingness to strengthen the relationships by
progressing in fields other than territorial issue)470.
Slot “economy is a plant” is a vegetative metaphoric model, based on a metaphoric transfer
of features of a plant (growth) to the sphere of economy. It should be stated that in mythical worldview of many nations economic prosperity is described in terms of natural fertility, prosperity, new
life by means of vegetative code, ie vegetative metaphors:
1. “１２年前、ブラジル（Ｂｒａｚｉｌ）、ロシア（Ｒｕｓｓｉａ）、インド（Ｉｎｄｉａ）、
中国（Ｃｈｉｎａ）の４カ国が急成長して世界経済を先導すると考え、「ＢＲＩＣｓ（ブリック
ス）」と名付けました。”(12 years ago 4 countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China) having an
intention to grow rapidly and come to the leadership in the global economy called themselves
“BRICs”)471.
2. “ＢＲＩＣＳ（新興５カ国＝ブラジル、ロシア、インド、中国、南アフリカ）の成長は世界経済
にとって重要な意味を 持つ。” (The growth of 5 countries of BRICS (5 emerging nations are
Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) is meaningful for the economy of the whole world)472.
Slot “time of economy” is realized by means of the lexeme “ 将 来 の 経 済 協 力 ” ( future
economic cooperation): “プーチン氏は「我々は将来の経済や貿易の協力発展のあらゆる可能性を
推進していく」と、経済を中心とした両国関係の強化の必要を強調。” (“We will continue to
promote all the possibilities of future economic and trade cooperation development”, emphasized
V. Putin the need for strengthening of bilateral relations with the focus of economy. 23.03.2013).
Slot “economy is a market”
The slot is realized by the lexeme “市場経済化 shijōkeizaika ”, which means the process of
economic transformation from planned to market economy. Despite generally negative evaluation
of the communist regime in Russia, this transformation is seen as a painful process, accompanied
by emergence of many social problems:
1. “激増の背景には、急速な市場経済化がある。” (In the background of the drastic increase (of
470 Asahi Shinbun, 5 June 2013.
471 Asahi Shinbun, 7 January 2013.
472 Asahi Shinbun, 8 January 2013.
127
the number of orphans in Russia) there is a rapid transformation of the economy into market
economy)473.
2. “世界屈指のバレエの技で観衆を魅了し続ける一方、ソ連崩壊後の市場経済化でビジネス重視の
土壌に変わった今、スポンサーの新興財閥が配役に口を出すとのうわさも絶えない。” (While it
continues to attract audience with its performance of the world leading ballet, now, that it is a
business-oriented soil, changed due to the transformation into market economy in the post-Soviet
period, the rumors about emerging conglomerates of sponsors interfering in the process of casting,
do not stop)474. The expression “ ビ ジ ネ ス 重 視 の 土 壌 bijinesu jūshi no dojō” metaphorically
represents Russia as a soil which can absorb certain idea, and by doing so change its nature.
Slot “economy is a changing formation”
According to notions actualized by the Japanese newspaper economy can be in two states:
dynamism and stability, wherein the stability is opposed to disorder, turmoil, and dynamism is
connected with growth. In a sense, economic stability is based on the stability of dynamism,
growth.
In the process of growth Russia enters into relations of equal partnership with countries like
Brazil and India, and, at the same time, all BRICS becomes a rival of G7. Thus, in the discourse of
“Asahi Shinbun” one of the ways of the world division is its division on economic basis: developed
countries of G7 versus emerging nations of BRICS: “ブラジル、ロシア、インド、中国、南アフリ
カの５カ国。経済規模は、世界全体の約２割を占め、２０５０年までには米国や日本、ドイツな
ど先進７カ国（Ｇ７）をしのぐとの見方もある。”(5 countries: Brazil, Russia, India, China and
South Africa. The economic scale, accounting for about 20% of the entire world economy, by 2050
may surpass 7 developed countries (G7), including the US, Japan and Germany)475.
Russian economy, still strongly dependent on Russian politics in order to be boosted needs
measures taken by V. Putin: “国際イベントを起爆剤とし、経済の底上げを図るのは、プーチン大
統領の開発手法でもある。”(One of development approaches of President Putin is the attempt of
using international events as a detonator for raising the level of economy)476.
“２０００年以降、大統領、首相、再び大統領と立ち位置を変えながら権力を維持するプーチン
氏は、エネルギー産業を重視することでロシア経済を押し上げることに成功する一方、孤児や年
金、住宅などの問題は後回しにしていた。貧富の差の拡大や汚職の増加に対し、庶民の不満が高
まっているためだ。” (Since 2000 V. Putin preserves his power while changing his status from
president to prime-minister, and again to president. Throughout this period V. Putin, on one hand,
managed to boost Russian economy by focusing on the energy industry, but, on the other hand,
473 Asahi Shinbun, 19 August 2013.
474 Asahi Shinbun, 22 March 2013.
475 Asahi Shinbun, 23 March 2013.
476 Asahi Shinbun, 24 July 2013.
128
the settlement of problems like orphans, pensions and housing was postponed. As the corruption
and the gap between the rich and the poor increased, the discontent of common people has
grown)477. Lexemes “ 押 し 上 げ る ” oshiageru (to boost, to push up), “ 底 上 げ ” sokoage
(raising of the standard) actualize the process of economic grows in terms of the orientational
metaphor: making something raise, pushing something up means improving the economy of the
country.
Slot “economy is an order/disorder”
Economic stability is connected with the state of order, and a notion of order may in this
case be realized by the lexeme “構造 kōzō” (system): “ロシアがこうした態度をとる理由は、この
国 の 経 済 構 造 に あ る 。 ” (The reason why Russia took this position lies in the structure of
economy, which this country has)478.
Disorder, chaos, turmoil are contrary to the state of order, and they are conceptualized as
something which must be overcome: “ソ連崩壊後の経済混乱期に日本車ビジネスで救われた記憶
が残る。”(They remember how in the period of post-Soviet economic disorder they were rescued
by Japanese cars business)479. “ソ連崩壊の混乱を経て経済が急成長する２００６年に誕生し
た。”((The TV show) was born in 2006 when Russian economy rapidly grew after overcoming
the disorder brought about by the collapse of the USSR) 480. Though the post-Soviet period finished
many years ago, Russia still has to handle its consequences, Russian economy is still
characterized rather by disorder than by order: “広大な土地を持つロシアは１９９１年のソ連崩壊
による経済的混乱で大量の不耕作地が生まれた。” (A large amount of non-cultivated land was
born in the vast territory of Russia as a result of the economic turmoil caused by the of the USSR
collapse in 1991)481.
Table 15.
Subframe “economy of Russia”.
Subframe
Economy
Russia
Slot
of Economy
56.5
Economy is a plant
26
Economy is something changing
7
Economy is a market
5.5
Economy is an order
3.5
Time of economy
1.5
477 Asahi Shinbun, 12 July 2013.
478 Asahi Shinbun, 19 October 2013.
479 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
480 Asahi Shinbun, 8 March 2013.
481 Asahi Shinbun, 29 April 2013.
129
%
3.2.6. Subframe “finance”
Slot “financial institutions”
The slot includes designations of Russian banks and financial institutions, such as “ ロシア
中銀”roshia chūgin/”ロシア中央銀行” roshia chūō ginkō (Central Bank of Russia), “ロシアのア
ル フ ァ 銀 行 ” roshia no arufa ginkō (Russian Alfa Bank). Russian bank culture is described as
inconvenient, employees are unprofessional: “例えば銀行。最近、子どもの学費を送金したところ、
小学校から「お金が入っていません」。銀行で確かめると、「先方の間違いでは？」と担当行員。
「念のため確認して下さい」と伝えると、私の口座番号を２カ所も間違えていた。相手は謝りも
せず、「なぜ確認しなかったのですか？」と逆に私が詰問された。” (For example, a bank.
Recently, a school informed me that the money transfer I had made to pay the tuition fee did not
come. When I asked in the bank, an employee told me that it must be a mistake of the beneficiary.
I asked him to check just in case, and it turned out that he made two mistakes in my bank account
number. Without even apologizing, he asked from his side: “Why didn't you check?”)482.
Slot “money”
The slot is actualized by lexemes, denoting money, wealth. Money can be characterized by
their nationality: “ロシアンマネー roshian manē”　(Russian money), by material it is made of: “ロ
シアオイルマネー roshia oiru manē”(Russian oil money), by its legality or illegality: “ロシアからア
ン グ ラ マ ネ ー roshia kara angura manē” (underground money from Russia), “ 不 透 明 な 資 金
futōmeina shikin” (opaque funds). Money can be undesirable and create problems. For instance:
“さらに問題を複雑にしたのはロシアからアングラマネーを含む多額の預金が流入していて、ユー
ロ圏とロシアとの利害対立を招いたことだ。”(The problem was even more complicated by the
inflow (to Cyprus) of big sums of money, including underground money from Russia, which led to
the conflict of interests between eurozone and Russia) 483. “キプロスは、租税回避地としてロシア
などからの不透明な資金が流れ込み、資金洗浄の舞台とみなされてきた。”(Tax haven Cyprus,
flooded with opaque funds from Russia and other countries, has been regarded as a stage for
money laundering)484.
In order to denote countries' incomings the newspaper uses economic terms: “ ＢＲＩＣｓ
の国内総生産（ＧＤＰ）は２０５０年には世界の４割を占めると予測したが、もっと早いスピー
ドで成長している。” (It has been estimated that in 2050 gross domestic product of BRICs will
account for 40% of the world, but it is growing even at a higher speed)485.
482 Asahi Shinbun, 29 April 2013.
483 Asahi Shinbun, 26 March 2013.
484 Ibidem.
485 Asahi Shinbun, 7 January 2013.
130
“Asahi Shinbun” describes Russia as a source: “ ロシアからの投資” roshia kara no tōshi
(investments from Russia) of investments and financial aid and, at the same time, as its object: “ブ
ラジル、ロシア、インド、中国の動向は、今も世界中が注目していますが、投資対象としてはや
や魅力が薄れてきた印象があります。”(Even today the development of Brazil, Russia, India and
China attracts attention in the world, but their attractiveness as of investment objects somewhat
faded)486.
Slot “securities”
The slot consists of designation of financial investments into Russian economy by means of
securities purchase, for instance: “ブリヤート共和国の製材会社「ＢＬＫ」社の株式” (the shares
of Buryat republic company “BLK”), “資源・エネルギー価格の上昇が追い風となったロシア株”
(the rise of resources and energy prises, which has become favourable for Russia's shares).
Shares of BRICs are actualized as encroaching in the top of a shares ranking, changing the
existing state of the global share market and the share market itself as a competitive environment,
where aggressive behaviour is needed: “ブラジル、ロシア、インド、中国のいわゆる「ＢＲＩＣ
ｓ」の新 興４カ国の株式を投資対象としたタイプも、 ラン キング上 位に食い 込んできまし
た 。 ” (Shares of 4 emerging nations of “BRICs” also have become the object of investments,
encroaching upon the top ranks)487.
Table 16.
Subframe “finance”.
Subframe
Slot
%
Finqnce
Money
74
Financial institutions
16.5
Securities
9.5
3.2.7. Subframe “industry”
Overall, the subframe is represented by various word-combinations with the lexeme “ 産業
sangyō”(industry) and is divided into thematic slots.
Slot “power and gas industry”
The slot is represented by lexemes “エネルギー産業 enerugī sangyō”(power industry), “エ
ネルギー資源輸出国
enerugī yushutsukoku”(energy exporter), “ ロ シ ア 天 然 ガ ス
roshia
tennengasu”(Russia's natural gas), etc.
Power industry is represented as the main industry sector of Russia, the source of its
486 Asahi Shinbun, 27 April 2013.
487 Asahi Shinbun, 18 November 2013.
131
economic growth: “プーチン氏は、エネルギー産業を重視することでロシア経済を押し上げる
[...] 。 ” (V. Putin managed to boost Russian economy by focusing on the energy industry
[...])488.
Another important function of this sector is being a base for international relationship
establishment. Though dependence of Russia is described as being dangerous, Russia's ability to
supply gas and oil often becomes the base of collaboration with other countries:
1. “習氏が最初の訪問先にロシアを選んだ背景にも、世界最大のエネルギー消費国である中国と、
エネルギー資源輸出国であるロシアの深い結びつきがある。”(In the background of Xi Jinping's
choice of Russia as his first official visit destination, there is a deep connection between China,
world's biggest energy consumer and Russia, energy resource exporter)489.
2. “２０１１年には、ロシアとノルウェーが、石油やガスの共同開発に弾みをつけようと、４０
年間に及ぶ北極圏での海の境界をめぐる争いを解決した。” (In 2011 Russia and Norway solved
the dispute over their maritime border in the Arctic, which had lasted for 40 years, in order to give
an impulse to the cooperative development of oil and gas industries)490.
3. “ＬＮＧ需要が急増する日本の市場に、ロシアは目を向けるようになった。”(Russia shifted
its focus to the Japanese market, where LNG demand is surging)491.
Due to the shale gas revolution Russia was forced to seek for new markets and shifted its
focus from Europe to Asia: “ロシア側がエネルギー協力に前のめりになる背景には、最近の世界的
なエネルギー事情の変化がある。”(The reason why Russia plunged into energy cooperation
(with Japan) is recent changes in global energy system)492.
Slot “oil industry”
The slot represented by the lexeme “石油 sekiyu”(oil) metaphorically describes Russia as
being “moist” by elevated prices on oil, which is one of the main export products of the country.
Like in case of the power industry oil export is also the reason to deepen relations with other
countries:
1. “石油価格の高騰で潤ったロシアから資金も人も流れこんだ。” (Both people and money
streamed from Russia (to Cyprus) profited by the steep price rise of oil)493.
2. “フィンランドはロシアからのエネルギー輸入に依存している。石炭や石油の９割を輸入してい
る。”(Finland depends on energy export from Russia. It imports 90% of coal and oil)494.
3. “ロシアから中国への年間の石油供給量を倍増するなど、多くの経済協力案件も合意された。”
488 Asahi Shinbun, 12 July 2013.
489 Asahi Shinbun, 23 March 2013.
490 Asahi Shinbun, 16 June 2013.
491 Asahi Shinbun, 26 February 2013.
492 Asahi Shinbun, 22 February 2013.
493 Asahi Shinbun, 21 March 2013.
494 Asahi Shinbun, 24 January 2013.
132
(Russia and China agreed upon many economic cooperation projects, like, for instance to double
the oil supply from Russia to China)495.
Slot “weapons industry”
The slot is widely and uniformly exemplified by text fragments concerning Russia's
weapons supply to Syria: “ロシア国営の兵器輸出企業「ロスオボロンエクスポルト」は、内戦状態
にあるシリアのアサド政権に対し、対空防衛システムなど防御用兵器に限って供給を続けている
と明らかにした。”(Russian state weaponry export company “Rosoboronexport” claimed that it
continues to supply only defense weapons, such as anti-aircraft defense system to the regime of
Assad in Syria, merged in the civil war)496.
Unlike manufacturing industry sector (the slot is absent) military production plays an
important role within Russian economy: “ロシアにとって、兵器はガスや石油などのエネルギーに
次ぐ第２の主力輸出品だ。製造業が低迷する中、軍事部門は世界市場でも通用する競争力があ
る。”(For Russia weaponry is the second major export product after energy resources, such as
gas and oil. While there is downturn in manufacturing industry sector, the military sector is
competitive in the world market)497.
Slot “nuclear industry”
The slot is mostly represented by the lexeme “原子力発電 genshiryoku hatsuden” (nuclear
power). Russia is described as a country with big nuclear potential: “２０３０年までに中国、イン
ド、ロシアが世界の原子力発電の４割を占めると予測する。”(It has been estimated that by 2030
China, India and Russia will account for 40% of world's nuclear power) 498 and wide extensive
nuclear infrastructure: “チェリャビンスク州一帯はロシアの主要工業地帯の一つで、原子力発電所
や使用済み核燃料の関連施設などもある。”(Whole Chelyabinsk Oblast is one of Russia's major
industrial areas, and among other there are also nuclear plants and spent nuclear fuel related
facilities)499.
Russia's predecessor Soviet Union was famous for its power plants construction in friendly
states (in India, African countries, East Europe). Though Soviet Union does not exist anymore,
Russian language is still common in a Bulgarian town where a nuclear plant was built: “ソ連全土か
ら原子力の技術者を集めてつくった町で、いまも共通語はロシア語だ。”(Russian language is
still common in the town where nuclear engineers gathered from all the territory of the USSR) 500.
Slot “automobile industry”
495 Asahi Shinbun, 24 March 2013.
496 Asahi Shinbun, 16 February 2013.
497 Asahi Shinbun, 14 September 2013.
498 Asahi Shinbun, 17 November 2013.
499 Asahi Shinbun, 16 February 2013.
500 Asahi Shinbun, 30 November 2013.
133
The automobile industry does not attract attention of Asahi Shinbun. Journalists notice that
second-hand Japanese cars are more appreciated in Russia than new Russian cars and interpret
events connected with the construction of Toyota plants in Russia: “走行距離が１０万キロを超えて
も 新 品 の ロ シ ア 車 よ り 高 性 能 で 安 い 日 本 車 は 引 く 手 あ ま た だ っ た 。 ” (Even with mileage
exceeding 10.000 kilometers a cheap and reliable Japanese cars were appreciated more than a
brand-new Russian car)501. “ロシアの自動車会社ソラーズと三井物産の合弁会社がウラジオストク
に建てたトヨタ車の組み立て工場から２５日、完成車１６台がシベリア鉄道の貨物車両に積まれ
て 初 出 荷 され た。 ” (On February, 25 16 first cars were finished and shipped in Trans-Siberian
Railway freight vehicles from Toyota construction plant, built in Vladivostok by a joint venture of
Russian automobile company Sollers JSC and Mitsui & Co. Ltd)502.
Slot “space exploration industry”
Though Russia still participates in international space exploration programs, produces
spacesuits and spacecrafts and prepares new space exploration projects its fame is connected
primarily with achievements of the Soviet Union:
1. “宇宙服は今、アメリカ製とロシア製、中国製しかない。”(Nowadays spacesuits are produced
only in America, Russia and China)503
2. “ロシア連邦宇宙庁のポポフキン長官は１５日、ロシア極東アムール州に建設中のボストーチヌ
イ宇宙基地から２０１ ５年に月 探査 機「ルナ ・グロー ブ」を打ち上げる計画 を明らかにし
た。”(On January, 15 the Secretary of Russian Federal Space Agency Popovkin revealed plans
of launching in 2015 a lunar probe “Luna Globe” from Vostochny Space Station, which is now
under construction in the Russian Far East Amur Oblast)504.
3. “宇宙関連企業「エネルギア」のロポタ社長は、核弾頭を搭載した大型ミサイルで危険な小惑星
を破壊する構想を提案した。”(The director of Rocket and Space Corporation Energia Lopota
proposed a plan of destroying of dangerous asteroids by a large missile equipped with a nuclear
warhead)505.
4. “これまでに火星の地表や軌道に探査機を送り込んだのは米国、ロシア（旧ソ連）、欧州宇宙機
関 。 ” (So far only the USA, Russia (former Soviet Union) and European Space Agency sent
spacecrafts to the surface of Mars and its orbit)506.
Table 17.
Subframe “industry”.
501 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
502 Asahi Shinbun, 26 February 2013.
503 Asahi Shinbun, 28 March 2013.
504 Asahi Shinbun, 17 January 2013.
505 Asahi Shinbun, 14 March 2013.
506 Asahi Shinbun, 6 November 2013.
134
Subframe
Slot
%
Industry
Power and gas industries
57.5
Weaponry industry
21
Nuclear industry
10
Oil industry
7.5
Space exploration
2.5
Automobile industry
1.5
3.2.8. Subframe “culture”
The aspects of Russian culture, conceived in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun are united into
slots on basis of their themes.
Slot “culture” is actualized by the lexeme “文化 bunka” and unites text fragments describing
Russian culture in general.
The notions about this aspect of Russia's life in Japan are not abundant: though the
Japanese know that in Russia there are museums with great collections of French fine art, many
Russians are well-educated people and Russian ballet school is still leading in the world, they
admit to lack knowledge about Russian culture: “日本でほとんど知られていなかったロシアの文
化” (Russian culture, almost unknown in Japan)507; “ロシアには行ったことがないし、知り合いも
いないし、ロシア文学は１冊しか読んだことがない。”(I have never been in Russia, don't know
any Russian and I have never read any Russian book)508.
The development of Russian culture is considered to be connected with Russian climate.
“Indoor” arts, such as literature, music and ballet developed due to severe Russian winter and
impossibility to be outside: “ロシアの冬は厳しい。外は危険なほど寒い。ゆえに、室内で過ごす時
間が長くなる。文学や音楽、バレエなどが発達したのは、ロシアが寒い国だったからかもしれな
い。”(Russian winter is severe. It is dangerously cold. For this reason people spend a lot of time
inside houses. Probably, it is because Russia is a cold country, that literature, music and ballet
developed here)509. Another theory of Russian culture presumes that inconvenience of Russia's life
led to the development of a rich and spiritual culture: “ロシアも不便だからこそ、精神性の豊かな文化
が育ったのではないか。” (It is exactly because Russia is inconvenient that spiritually rich culture
came into being)510. The notion of spirituality of Russian culture corresponds to the stereotype of a
mysterious and spiritual Russian soul.
What the Japanese newspaper stresses is the difference between cultures of two countries:
507 Asahi Shinbun, 12 June 2013.
508 Asahi Shinbun, 28 January 2013.
509 Asahi Shinbun, 6 July 2013.
510 Asahi Shinbun, 11 April 2013.
135
“文化や社会の仕組みが日本と大きく違い、「ありえへん」と叫びたくなることが多い。” (There
is a world of difference between Japanese (and Russian) systems of culture and society.
Sometimes you will just want to shout: “Impossible!”)511.
The greatness of Russian culture is opposed to the tragedies happened in the course of
Japan-Russia relations: “世界最高峰の音楽やバレエ、演劇、文学を育む一方、シベリア抑留や北
方領土問題など暗い話題 。” (On one hand, (it is the country) of world's best music and ballet,
theatre and literature. On the other hand, there were such dark pages of history like Siberian
internment and Northern Territories issue)512. Even though the newspaper admits the greatness of
Russian culture, its impressions are sadden by the events in the Soviet past.
Slot “art” is actualized by a lexeme “美術館 bijutsukan”(art museum): “フランス絵画３００
年の歴史を彩る名品６６点がモスクワのプーシキン美術館から来日する。” (66 art works, which
illuminate 300 years of French fine arts history, arrived in Japan from Pushkin Museum in
Moscow)513; and by word combinations with the lexeme “アート āto”, for instance: “現代アートを
支援する現代のコレクターを訪ねた。モスクワに点在するアートスペースで、「世界のアートを
ロシアへ、ロシアのアートを世界へ」と活躍しているのは女性たちだった。”(I met a collector
who supports modern art (in Russia). It was a woman who works in numerous art spaces of
Moscow, in order to bring “world's art to Russia, and Russian art to the world”) 514.
Slot “music” is realized by lexemes “ロシアのバレエ音楽 roshia no barē ongaku” (Russian
ballet music), “ ロ シ ア の 民 謡 音 楽 roshia no min'yō ongaku” (Russian folk music), etc. Russian
classical music is appreciated in Japan, the level of Russian musicians is considered to be high,
while Russian pop music is unknown to the Japanese: “ウラジオの音楽家のレベルは高く、今後
も交流を続けたい。”(The level of musicians from Vladivostok is high, and I would like to continue
the exchange in future)515. “「白鳥の湖」の悲しげな音楽とともに、美しく舞うバレリーナ――。
「バレエ」は多くの女性たちの憧れだ。” (A ballerina is marvelously dancing together with sad
music of the “Swan Lake”. “Ballet” is a dream of many women516).
Slot “education” is represented by names of Russian universities (“ロシアのモスクワ大学”
roshia no mosukuwadaigaku, 極東連邦大学 kyokutō renpōdaigaku).
A Russian university can become a link connecting Russia and Asian countries: “ ＦＥＦＵ
はロシア極東地域最大の総合大学で、中国や韓国、ベトナムなどから約１千人の留学生を受け入
511 Asahi Shinbun, 4 November 2013.
512 Asahi Shinbun, 28 December 2013.
513 Asahi Shinbun, 5 January 2013.
514 Asahi Shinbun, 6 August 2013.
515 Asahi Shinbun, 24 August 2013.
516 Asahi Shinbun, 2 August 2013.
136
れている。学生たちは１カ月間、ロシア語のほか、ロシアの文化や外交政策などを学
ぶ 。 ” (FEFU is the largest university in the Russian Far East, which accepts around 1000
students from China and Korea, Vietnam and other countries. During one month students study not
only Russian language, but also Russian culture and diplomatic policy)517.
Russian education is considered to be good, many Russians are well-educated and worth
being employed: “ロシア人は基礎教育がしっかりして優秀な人材が多い。積極的に採用した い。”
(Among Russians many are capable people with good basic education. I surely want to employ
them)518.
Slot “Russian language” is actualized by the lexeme “ ロシア語 roshiago”. Generally, it is
mentioned in text fragments, which include Russian words (ペレストロイカ,　グラスノスチ,　カ
スチョール, etc.). For instance, “ダスヴィダーニヤは「さよなら」のロシア語” (“Do svidaniya”
means “Good bye” in Russian).
The Japanese can contact Russian language through a TV program「テレビでロシア語」
(“Russian language on TV”) on a Japanese channel or by listening to Russian radio on the Internet
and by participating in Russian language speech contests held in Japan: “帰国後、インターネット
でロシアのラジオ番組を聴き、ロシア語のスピーチコンテストにも出場した。”(After coming
back home, (she) was listening to Russian radio programs on the Internet and participated in a
Russian language speech contest)519.
Slot “religion” is represented by designations of Russian Orthodox Church, which is
described as suffering from hypertrophy: “肥大化していくロシア正教”, and greedy: “ロシア正教
は教会ビジネスを際限なく拡大していく。教会に足をはこぶ人がふえるという構図、原油ビジネ
ス、商業銀行の開設、国民の目には「欲深い教会」と映るのも当然だ。”(Russian Orthodox
Church endlessly expands the church business. Plans of expanding flocks, crude oil business,
establishment of commercial banks – no wonder that it seen as “greedy church” in the public
eye)520.
Slot “history” is realized by the word-combination “ロシアの歴史 roshia no rekishi”, which is
described as turbulent and tragic, for instance: “ロシアの激動の歴史がくしくも一つにまとめ上げ
た き ら 星 の ご と き フ ラ ン ス 絵 画 の 傑 作 群 。 ” (Strangely, during its turbulent history Russia
managed to gather a brilliant collection of French masterpieces)521.
Slot “everyday life” reflects some notions of the Japanese about Russian routine.
According to Japanese journalists “inconvenient” is one of the most commonly used words
517 Asahi Shinbun, 5 August 2013.
518 Asahi Shinbun, 2 September 2013.
519 Asahi Shinbun, 5 January 2013.
520 Asahi Shinbun, 28 April 2013.
521 Asahi Shinbun, 8 February 2013.
137
in Russia, and it describes everyday life in Russia: “「不便だ」を意味するロシア語「ニウドーブ
ナ」は最もよく使う言葉だ。” (“Neudobno”, which mean “inconvenient” in Russian is the most
frequently used word)522. Inconvenient things are: bad bank system, unreliable services providers
and even the fact that in Russia there are 9 time zones leads to inconvenience: “いまのロシアには
時間が九つ。暮らしは時に複雑だ。”(Now in Russia there are 9 time zones. Sometimes life is
complicated)523. Another reason of inconvenience are traffic jams and surprisingly dirty cars in
Russian cities. Moscow, for instance, is compared with deluge: “街に出て驚いたのは汚れた車の
大洪水であった。”(When we went out to the city, surprisingly it looked like deluge of dirty cars) 524,
while Sochi is suffocating with traffic jams: “渋滞が激しい道を車で１時間進むとリゾート地が見
えてくる。”(After one hour of an intensively congested road, the resort comes into view)525.
In other respects, Russians are described as lovers of vodka and black tea, music, songs
around bonfire, friendly talks and sushi: “テーブルを囲んでお茶やウオツカを飲み、黒パンにチー
ズやハムをのせたオープンサンドを食べた。談笑の合間に必ず誰かが楽器を弾いた。楽器の音色
が流れると、途端に空気がロマンチックになった。”(We used to sit around a table, drink vodka
or tea and eat rye bread and cheese or ham open sandwiches.
In the breaks in friendly
conversations somebody would surely play a musical instrument. With the flaw of sounds of music,
the atmosphere would become romantic) 526. “ロシアでは、すしは多くのレストランで普及し、総
菜 売 り 場 で も 人 気 を 集 め る 。 ” (In Russia sushi is common in many restaurants, and it has
become popular even in departments of side dishes)527.
Table 18.
Subframe “culture”.
Subframe
Slot
%
Culture
Culture
27.5
Music
22
Everyday life
16.5
Russian language
12
Education
10
History
8
Religion
2.5
Art
1.5
522 Asahi Shinbun, 11 April 2013.
523 Asahi Shinbun, 5 January 2013.
524 Asahi Shinbun, 9 November 2013.
525 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
526 Asahi Shinbun, 14 December 2013.
527 Asahi Shinbun, 15 February 2013.
138
3.2.9. Subframe “sport”
Apart from description of international events in which Russian athletes participated, in
2013, on the threshold of Sochi 2014, the attention of the Japanese newspaper was concentrated
on Olympic games held in Russia.
The Olympic games are seen by Asahi Shinbun in several different aspects:
1. as a political event which can change the image of Russia in the world: “五輪の成否は、ロ
シアのイメージを大きく左右しかねない。”(The success of Olympics can greatly affect
the image of Russia);
2. as one of many international events used by V. Putin as the way of boosting economy: “国
際イベントを起爆剤とし、経済の底上げを図るのは、プーチン大統領流の開発手法でもあ
る。「アジアへの窓」と位置づける極東ウラジオストクで昨秋、アジア太平洋経済協力会
議（ＡＰＥＣ）を開催、この夏にはＩＴ都市をめざすカザニ（タタールスタン共和国）で
ユニバーシアード大会が予定されており、ソチ五輪は国際イベントの第３弾とも言え
る 。 ” (One of development approaches of President Putin is the attempt of using
international events as a detonator for raising the level of economy. Far Eastern city
Vladivostok, which is also called “the window to Asia” became the last autumn the venue of
APEC conference, this summer the Universiade is scheduled in Kazan, which aim at the
status of an IT city (Tatarstan), and the Olympics in Sochi is called the third part of this
story)528. The counter “弾 dan” whose primary meaning is “bullet” metaphorically describes
the Olympics as a certain missile, aimed at development of international relations in order
to boost Russian economy;
3. as a burden for the environment: “１５年前の長野五輪でも問題になったが、やはり冬の大会は
自然にかかる負担が大きい。” (15 years ago Nagano faced similar problems (like Sochi).
Indeed, winter Olympic games are a heavy burden for the nature)529.
4. as a sporting event, as a long-awaited holiday: “ロシア南部ソチで開かれる冬季五輪（来年
２月７日開幕）まであと１００日と迫った３０日、ロシア各地では２９日に続いてカウン
トダウンイベントが行われた。”(In the wake of October, 29 everywhere in Russia they
started the countdown of Sochi (Southern Russia) Winter Olympics) 530, as 100 days
remained before the opening on October, 30)531.
528 Asahi Shinbun, 24 July 2013.
529 Asahi Shinbun, 6 January 2013.
530 Asahi Shinbun, 7 February 2013.
531 Asahi Shinbun, 31 October 2013.
139
3.2.10. Subframe “time of Russia”
Slot “past of Russia” is realized by means of indicating events and states which
characterized Russia in the past. The past of Russia is tragic and threatening: “祖父がこの道で強制
労働させられたというゾーリナ館長は「囚人は木綿の薄い上着だけで、食事も粗末。警備隊は気晴らしに
囚人を銃殺するような人々。恐ろしい時代でした」。” (The director of the museum, whose grandfather
was forced to work on that way told me that prisoners wore only thin cotton coats, and meals were
poor. Guards were such people who could shoot prisoners just for distraction. It was a terrifying
era)532; “囚人は劣悪な環境で毎日１０～１２時間も働かされた。飢えや寒さで毎日２０～２５人ずつ死んだと
いう。” (Prisoners had to work in terrible conditions for 10-12 hours a day. Every day 20-25 people
died of hunger or cold) 533. Such perception of Russian history is achieved due to the presence in
the text emotionally marked expressive vocabulary (terrifying era, terrible conditions) and
vocabulary which designates negative phenomena of social life (prisoners killed for distraction,
died of huger and cold).
If not killed, whole diasporas or villages were often forced to migrate from fertile land of
Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Siberia or the Far East: “両親も旧ソ連時代にカザフスタンに強制移住させら
れたチェチェン人のディアスポラ。” (Parent were also in a Chechen diaspora which was forced to
migrate to Kazakhstan in former Soviet Union era)534.
The collapse of the USSR brought about nothing but economic turmoil, when even food
was scarce: “モスクワに留学していたとき、ロシア人家庭にホームステイしました。ソ連崩壊の翌年で食糧
事情の悪いころです。” (When I studied in Moscow, I stayed in a Russian house. It was one year
after the collapse of the USSR and the food situation was bad)535.
Texts of Asahi Shinbun are focused on Russia's past of the Soviet period, which was the
time that define scenarios of Russia's new history development. It is in the Soviet period that
events (internment, South Kuril issue) defined basically negative character of Japan-Russia
relations. Moreover, the Soviet Union plays a role of a certain base with which to compare its
ancestor modern Russia and where to search for the explanation of its actions.
Slot “modern Russia”
Today's Russia is described by means of lexemes “今のロシア ima no roshia”, “現代ロシア
genzai roshia” (modern Russia) and other combinations indicating events and state of Russia's
present.
Russia inherited many negative phenomena of the USSR or developed them in the post532 Asahi Shinbun, 11 March 2013.
533 Ibidem.
534 Asahi Shinbun, 19 April 2013.
535 Asahi Shinbun, 15 February 2013.
140
Soviet period. Journalists search for reason of today's Russia phenomena in its past: “ロシア社会
の同性愛への偏見は根強く、旧ソ連時代は犯罪行為とされていた。現在も同性婚は公認されてい
ない。”(Prejudice against homosexuality is deeply rooted in Russian society: in the former Soviet
Union it was a criminal offense. Same-sex marriages are still not recognized) 536. Natural metaphor
“偏見は根強く” described Russian society as soil, where certain ideas take root, are deep-rooted.
“「ベレゾフスキーは死んだ。しかし彼のプーチンは生きている」。評論家のイーゴリ・エイドマ
ン氏はこうブログに書いた。ソ連時代の有名なスローガン「レーニンは死んだ。しかし彼の事業
は生きている」をもじったもので、腐敗と不正義が支配する政治文化がベレゾフスキー氏から
プーチン政権に引き継がれたという痛烈な皮肉だ。”(“Berezovsky died. But his Putin is alive”,
wrote in his blog commentator Igor Eidman. He parodied a famous Soviet slogan “Lenin died. But
his deed is alive”. The poignant irony is that political culture based on corruption and injustice was
taken over by Putin's regime from Berezovsky) 537. The political system of modern Russia got a
negative evaluation by being called corrupted and unjust, and the foundation of this system was
laid in 1990s, in the time of B. Yeltsin and B. Berezovsky.
Nonetheless, Russia is described in the state of change, for instance, the change of its
infrastructure: “シェレメチェボ国際空港の様相はすっかり変わっていた。客に対して無愛想なあし
らいをする職員、蛇のようなパイプの天井はなくなり、愛想のよい職員と明るいモダンな建物に
な っ て い た 。 ” (The appearance of Sheremetyevo International Airport has been completely
changed. There are no more unfriendly staff and a long snake-like pipe on the ceiling. Instead,
there are affable staff and a bright modern building) 538. Superficial level of positive changes and
deep level of inherited negative phenomena let conclude that for Asahi Shinbun deep inside Russia
is the same undemocratic country, that cannot hide its authoritarian nature behind new facades.
Slot “future of Russia”
Future of Russia is vague and the journalists do not try to interpret it. In few text fragments
the future is mentioned in the contexts of various plans of Russia's authorities, concerning JapanRussia relations: “将来の日ロ関係を見すえ、交渉を着実に進めなければならない。” (Looking into the
future of Japan-Russia relations it is clear that the negotiation (over the South Kuril islands) must
steadily proceed)539, or the future of the South Kuril islands: “ソプロスクリン氏は「新たに幼稚園や
学校が建設され、子育て環境が整ってきた。開発が進み、島民は将来の生活に自信を持ち始めて
い る 」 と 指 摘 す る 。 ” (Soproskurin pointed out that “new preschools and schools were
constructed, and child-rearing environment is now well-equipped. The development is advancing,
536
537
538
539
141
Asahi Shinbun, 18 August 2013.
Asahi Shinbun, 1 April 2013.
Asahi Shinbun, 17 February 2013.
Asahi Shinbun, 1 May 2013.
and island residents (Shikotan) are beginning to have confidence in their future life”)540.
Typical triad “the time is past→present→future” is represented as a linear transition from
one state into another: the past of Russia is clearly reflected in its present, and moving forward
leads from the present to the future. The past of Russia is perceived negatively, while its future is
unclear.
Table 19.
Subframe “time of Russia”.
Subframe
Slot
%
Time of Russia
Past of Russia
75.5
Modern Russia
20.5
Future of Russia
4
3.2.11. Subframe “events”
Various events of Russia's past, present and future were mentioned in the discourse of
“Asahi Shinbun”: the Chernobyl accident, perestroika and glasnost, the collapse of the USSR,
presidential elections of 1996 and 2000, the crisis of 1998, acts of terrorism, military conflict with
Giorgia, international summits and other international events hold in Russia, Olympic games 2014.
For instance, Russia of 1990s is represented as a martyr suffering from frequent terroristic
attacks: “９０年代以降、たびたび悲惨なテロに苦しめられてきたロシアでは、空港や主要な鉄道
駅に金属探知機が設置されている。” (Metal detectors have been installed in airports and major
train stations in Russia, which has often been suffering from terrorism starting from 1990s)541.
Though attitude towards Olympic games in Sochi changes over a year, its unchangeable
characteristics is its connection with Russia's political life and comparisons with Olympic game
1980, held in Moscow. Likewise, the probability of Olympics boycott was high: “ロシアでは今年、
未成年者への同性愛宣伝を禁じる「反同性愛法」が成立。欧米の文化人らがソチ五輪のボイコッ
トを呼びかける事態を招いた。”(This year Russia accepted an “anti-homosexual law”, forbidding
homosexual propaganda to minors. People of Western culture call for the boycott of Olympic
games in Sochi)542.
The most frequently mentioned event is the collapse of the USSR, defined new internal and
foreign policies of Russia, oriented now towards the democratization of society and shift towards
market economy. The collapse of the USSR led to the economic disorder and psychological
disruptions: “１９９１年のソ連崩壊のあと、ロシア社会に空前の宗教ブームが起きる。政治への絶
540 Asahi Shinbun, 26 April 2013.
541 Asahi Shinbun, 11 April 2013.
542 Asahi Shinbun, 4 December 2013.
142
望と宗教への期待が表裏の関係だ。” (After the collapse of the USSR in 1991 Russia witnessed
unprecedented boom of religion. Its reasons lie in connection between the distrust towards politics
and hopes upon religion)543.
3.2.12. Subframe “society”
The subframe actualizes notions about Russia as a society, nation and it is actualized by
the lexeme “社会 shakai”.
Russian society is seen by authors of Asahi Shinbun as a highly problematic society, it is
negatively assessed by means of vocabulary that denotes negative social phenomena, seen by
journalists of the newspaper in various aspects:
1.
Russia is a criminalized society where offenses are committed under the influence
of liquor and many people lost their parental authorities because of drugs, alcohol or imprisonment:
“激増の背景には、急速な市場経済化がある。失業者が増えて貧困層が拡大。アルコールや麻薬に
手を出す人が増加した。ロシアでは、親がアルコールや麻薬の依存症だったり、服役中だったり
する場合、裁判所が親権を剥奪（はくだつ）することがある。孤児の約８割は、こうして親が親
権 を失った「社会的 孤 児」と 呼ばれる。 ” (In the background of the drastic increase (of the
number of orphans in Russia) there is a rapid transformation of the economy into market economy.
Due to the unemployment the number of the poor increased. Many people turned to alcohol and
drugs. In Russia the court sometimes removes parental authority, if parents are drug or alcohol
addicted, or they are in prison. About 80% of orphans are so called “social orphans”, that is they
parents lost parental authority)544; “ロシア極東ハバロフスクで２月２８日夜、ロケ中の日本の映画
撮影チームに向けて、酒に酔った２０代の男が空気銃を発砲し、警察に逮捕された。” (On
February, 28 a drunk man of around 20 years old fired an air gun toward a Japanese movie team
which was on a film location in Khabarovsk, Far East Russia. He was arrested by the police)545;
2.
Russia is a stratified society, and the disparity between the rich and the poor not only leads
to many social problems, but also characterizes Russia as an “emerging”, that is in fact a
developing country: “ロシアでは今、富裕層と低所得者の格差が、さらに拡大しているように見え
る。”(Now in Russia the disparity between wealthy and low-income people seems to be further
expanded)546. “格差拡大の傾向は、すでに多くの国でみられる。中国やロシア、インドなど新興国
でも富が富裕層に集まる傾向がみられ、実際、こうした国の経済成長も鈍くなっている。”(The
tendency of the disparity gap expansion can be observed in many countries. In emerging nations
543
544
545
546
143
Asahi Shinbun, 28 April 2013.
Asahi Shinbun, 19 August 2013.
Asahi Shinbun, 2 March 2013.
Asahi Shinbun, 20 May 2013.
like China, Russia or India the wealth is concentrated in the hands of the rich, while the economic
growth of these countries has in fact slowed down)547;
3.
Despite all changes that took place after the collapse of the USSR, Russia is still the same:
it is a nation, ruled by the tsar who tries to suppress social discontent, while the society itself is in
the state of war of groups pursuing different aims: “異なる宗教・民族間のあつれきによるロシア
の弱体化を憂慮するプーチン大統領は、社会不安の抑え込みに懸命だ。” (President Putin is
concerned about Russia's weakening due to the conflicts between different religious and ethnic
groups, and he tries hard to control social unrest) 548. “有力紙コメルサントは、背景には、「ムチで
国民を統治し続けたい」今日の支配層と「自分の力で国の運命を担いたい」市民層との対立があ
る、とした。せめぎ合いの帰趨（きすう）は、ロシア社会の将来とともに、北方領土問題にも関
わる。”(According to the influential newspaper “Kommersant” in the background (of the fight for
Stalin's re-evaluation) there is a desire of the governors to rule the people by means of a whip and
a desire of people to take responsibility for the proper country's destiny. Conflict tendencies will be
connected with the future of Russian society and either with Northern Territories issue)549;
4.
But what unites Russian society is a sense of disappointment, anger, discontent both
towards the society itself and towards policies of Russian government: “ロシア人がつくる社会シス
テムの非効率、独善性など、当のロシア人自身があきれ怒りだ。” (Inefficiency of the social
system which Russians build, its self-righteousness are the reasons of unstoppable anger felt by
Russians themselves)550; “現代ロシア社会への風刺が痛烈だ。今年６月にロシアで成立し物議をか
もした同性愛宣伝禁止法にふれ、「最近、同性愛への嫌悪が国中に偏執狂的にはびこっている。
[...] ロシア国 民としては心 底がっかりしている」と語った。 ” (The satire towards modern
Russian society is poignant. Concerning the law against homosexual propaganda, which was
accepted in June and gave rise to public criticism: “Recently, the aversion to homosexuality is
spreading in a paranoid way. […] As a Russian I am genuinely disappointed”, (the writer Sorokin)
said)551.
Overall, Russian society is seen by the Japanese newspaper as a highly unstable formation
with no order, needing strong measures of its tsar. Even the sense of discontent unifying the
society can only lead to new problems.
547 Asahi Shinbun, 3 August 2013.
548 Asahi Shinbun, 24 October 2013.
549 Asahi Shinbun, 17 April 2013.
550 Asahi Shinbun, 28 April 2013.
551 Asahi Shinbun, 19 October 2013.
144
3.2.13. Subframe “people of Russia”
The subframe is identified as a separate structure that reflects an integral part of a woldview of any nation, connected with realization of human presence in the world as a concrete
individual or a group of individuals. “Indeed, the concept of “people” is the cornerstone in
discourses of every culture. All languages have words standing for “people”, and this concept
cannot be reduced to simple plurality of human individuals. The concept “people” as a social
category has established as an indispensable component of the world's conceptualization”552.
As an element of the conceptual structure “Russia is a state” the subframe is represented
graphically by a diagram that demonstrates fundamental relations of social groups of the society.
Apparently, the Japanese world-view within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun tends to see human
relations within a social system as a vertical axis, wherein groups are “placed” from top to down,
from a head of a state to its population on basis of subordination.
Scheme 4.
Structure of Russian society.
Head of state
State officials
Profeccional groups
Common people
Slot “head of state and state officials”
The slot is represented by groups of designations of Russian presidents and power
representatives. Presidents of Russia are designated by the following lexemes: ロ シ ア 大 統 領
roshia daitōryō,　プーチン氏 pūchinshi,　プーチン大統領 pūchin daitōryō,　ロシアのプーチン大
統領 roshia no pūchin daitōryō,　当時のエリツィン大統領 tōji no eritsuin daitōryō, etc.
552 KETESOVA, MAKHANOVA, Conceptual foundations of culture psychology.
145
In this case “president” is not a working president of Russian Federation V. Putin, but a
separate frame, wherein there are certain gaps (“persons”, “presidents of Russia/another country”;
“ex/working/future president”, etc.), which are filled with concrete language realizations. For
instance, “ジェラール・ドパルデュー氏（６４）に対し、ロシアのプーチン大統領がロシア国籍を
与える大統領令に署名した。”(Russian President V. Putin signed a presidential decree that gives
the Russian citizenship to Gerard Depardieu)553 (filled gaps are: “persons”, “presidents of
Russia/other country”); “ヤヌコビッチ氏は１７日、モスクワを訪れ、プーチン大統領と会談す
る 。” (On December, 17 V. Yanukovich will visit Moscow and meet with President Putin) 554 (filled
gaps are: “persons”).
J. Lakoff and M. Johnson described the concept of power in terms of the vertical axis
“up/down”: in terms of the vertical possession of power it is the top, and the object of power is its
bottom”555. Russian president has the power and he is perceived as being at the top, while
everything subjected to him is in the bottom. According to T.A. Van Dijk, “the concept of power is
based on social inequality. […] Such structure of social organization is known to all members of a
society, and therefore is represented in the social representations”556.
In the discourse of Asahi Shinbun the top position of a Russian president is realized by
means of verbs that have semantics of raising or suppressing something, that is of doing
something “from top to down”, for instance: “プーチン大統領は「国の威信をかけて成功させる」と
意気込んでいる; 経済の底上げを図るのは、プーチン大統領流の開発手法; 海軍力増強に向けて
４兆ルーブル以上を投じる計画; プーチン大統領は、社会不安の抑え込みに懸命; 世界をリード
する政治家やビジネスマンら７２人を対象に順位がつけられた。プーチン氏は昨年１位だったオ
バマ米大統領（今年２位）を抑えた 。”((Forbes) creates its ranking on basis of 72 most powerful
politicians and businessmen of the world. President Putin suppressed President Obama who was
the first last year (now he is the second) 557. In the example the power of V. Putin goes beyond
national borders: the influential American magazine acknowledges the superiority of his power
even over the American President. On the other hand, the loss of power is connected with the
“bottom” of the vertical. In the following example the meaning “to fall” is inherent in the semantics
of the compound “失墜”(to lose): “８月のクーデター未遂事件でゴルバチョフ大統領の権威は失墜
し、ロシア共和国のエリツィン大統領が実権を握っていった。” (As a result of August coup
attempt President Gorbachev loses his power, and the President of Soviet Russia B. Yeltsin seizes
it)558.
553 Asahi Shinbun, 4 January 2013.
554 Asahi Shinbun, 4 December 2013.
555 LAKOFF, JOHNSON, Metaphors We Live By.
556 Teun Adrianus van DIJK, News as discourse, Moscow, Nauka, 1988.
557 Asahi Shinbun, 1 November 2013.
558 Asahi Shinbun, 23 April 2013.
146
The group “state officials” is represented by designations of executive positions: “ロシア地
域開発省次官” roshia chiiki kaihatsushō jikan (regional development minister's assistant), “外相”
gaishō,　“知事” chiji) by common terms denoting the upper crust of the state (“首脳” shunō,
“高官” kōkan, “幹部” kanbu, “取締” torishimari) or by metonymies (“プーチン政権” pūchin
seiken, “ ロ シ ア 外 務 省 ” roshia gaimushō) that denote not a regime or a ministry but people
behind them and their actions. For instance: “ロシア外務省は発言の背景に「戦後の現実を拒否し、
第２次大戦について偏見に満ちた評価を押しつけようとする政治家たちの試み」があると指摘し
た。”(It was pointed out that in the reason underlaid the statement of Russian Ministry of Foreign
Affairs is an attempt of (Japanese) politicians to deny the post-war reality and to impose the
evaluation filled with prejudice towards the Second World War)559.
Slot “tycoons”
The slot is actualized by designations of Russian oligarchy and by name of its
representatives, for instance: “ロシアの政商ボリス・ベレゾフスキー氏” roshia no seishō borisu
berezofusukīshi, “ 「 オ リ ガ ル ヒ 」 ” origaruhi, “ 富 豪 ア ブ ラ モ ビ ッ チ 氏 ”
fugō
aburamobitchishi. It is a particular group that does not belong to any of Russian society's strata
because of its migrant position: due to the dangerous proximity to the power Russian oligarchs can
enter the group “state officials”, can be “demoted” to “professional groups” or vice versa become
power brokers virtually joining the group “head of state”:
1.
Tycoons as creators of regimes: “ベレゾフスキー氏はプーチン大統領を誕生させた 。” (B.
Berezovsky gave birth to President Putin)560; “さらに９９年にはエリツィン大統領の最側近として、
まったく無名のプーチン氏を大統領の後継者に仕立てた。” (Again, in 1999 the closest aide of
Yeltsin Putin, unknown to anybody at that time, was prepared (by Berezovsky) to become the
successor of the President)561.
2.
Tycoons as “state officials”: “ベレゾフスキー氏の右腕として頭角を現したが決別し、プー
チ ン 政 権 と 良 好 な 関 係 を 維 持 し て い る 。 ” ((Abramovich) emerged as the right hand of
Berezovsky, and after the separation with him he has maintained good relationships with the
regime of Putin)562.
3.
Tycoons in disgrace: “プーチン氏は実業家が政治に口を挟むことを嫌い、エリツィン政権
で力をふるったオリガルヒの多くが１０年余のうちに放逐されるか政権に屈服した。” (Putin
hates businessmen who meddle with politics. Many of those oligarchs who exercised power under
559 Asahi Shinbun, 24 May 2013.
560 Asahi Shinbun, 3 April 2013.
561 Asahi Shinbun, 1 April 2013.
562 Asahi Shinbun, 1 April 2013.
147
the regime of Yeltsin had to succumb to Putin's regime or were expelled within 10 years) 563.
They can never be regime-neutral, establishing relations of opposition or friendship, for
instance: “親プーチン政権の富豪アブラモビッチ氏” (the supporter of Putin's regime oligarch
Abramovich), “ベレゾフスキー氏は、ロシアのプーチン大統領と激しく対立。何度も暗殺の標的に
なったとされてきた。”(Berezovsky was in relations of violent conflict with Putin. Many times he
became the target of murderous assaults)564. Asahi Shinbun associated the fact that somebody
tried to attempt Berezovsky's life with the power of Putin, practically representing it as a bloody
regime.
Slot “professional groups”
The slot consists of designations of professions and activities (journalists, military
professions, occupations related to finance, sports, business, art).
Russia is still associated in Japan with victories in sport. Moreover, the Olympics 2014 was
held in Russia. For these reasons, predictably, the most numerous group in 2013 was the group of
Russian athletes. For instance: “ ロ シ ア 元 選 手 ” roshia moto senshu (ex-athlete from Russia),
“フィギュア大国ロシアの顔” (the face of the great figure skating country Russia), “ロシアのガル
リ・カスパロフ氏” (Russian Gary Kasparov), “北米アイスホッケーリーグ（ＮＨＬ）キャピタ
ルズのスター選手でロシア出身のアレックス・オベチキン” (Alexander Ovechkin from Russia,
the star ice hockey player of Capitals of the North American NHL)565.
In order to designated Russian scientists, researchers and various experts Asahi Shinbun
uses both names of their profession and common terms: “ロシアの科学者や研究者ら” (Russian
scientists and researchers), “ロシア科学アカデミー会員の隕石の専門家” (an expert in meteorites
of Russian Academy of Sciences), “ ロ シ ア 国 立 気 象 大 学 の 研 究 員 ” (researcher of Russian
National Weather University), “ロシアの物理学者”(Russian physicist), “ロシアの大学や研究所か
らの教授ら”(professors from Russian universities and research institutes), “ロシアの化学者”
(Russian chemist). For instance: “元素周期表は１８６０年代末にロシアの化学者メンデレーエフ
によって考案された。”(The periodic table was invented by the Russian chemist D. Mendeleev in
the late 1860s)566.
Russian businessmen are usually designated by the lexemes “実業家”or “ビジネスマン”,
for instance: “プーチン大統領が最重要政策の一つとする極東開発に実業家のノウハウを生かす狙
563 Asahi Shinbun, 25 March 2013.
564 Asahi Shinbun, 27 March 2013.
565 Asahi Shinbun, 3 January 2013.
566 Asahi Shinbun, 15 March 2013.
148
いだ。”(One of the most important policies of Putin aims at utilization of business men's knowhows in the Far East development)567.
Art workers are denoted by their professions and their proper names: “ 国民詩人プーシキ
ン”(national poet Pushkin), “アレクセイ・ゲルマンさん（ロシアの映画監督）”(Alexei German
(Russian film director)), “ロシアの文豪トルストイ” (Russian great writer Tolstoy).
Among other professions there are: “ 通 訳 士 ”
(interpreter), “ 漁 業 関 係 の ロ シ
ア”(Russian fishermen), “ロシア人の警官” (Russian police officers),　”ロシアの弁護士”
(Russian lawyers), “ロシアのすし職人” (Russian sushi chef).
Slot “common people, population”
The population of Russia is represented by 5 groups:
1.
A part of the population is separated into a group: “ ロ シ ア 人 が ２ ０ ０ ０ 万 人 も 死 ん
だ。”(20 millions Russians died)568, “ロシア人の７割” (70% of Russians); “過去２０年間で死
亡したロシア人の養子の数は米国よりロシアの方が６０倍も多い。”(In the past 20 years 60
times as much Russian orphans died in Russia compared to the USA)569;
2.
Designations of the whole population: “ロシア人 roshiajin”, “庶民 shomin”, “ロシアの人口
roshia no jinkō”. The main characteristics of Russian population is its decline, underpopulation of
many regions and its outflow. In order to help realize the state of affairs Russian regions are often
compared with Japan: “日本の面積の１６倍に相当する極東連邦管区の人口は約６３０万人で、２
０年 間で ２ 割 も 減 少 し た。 ” (Far East Federal District is 16 times as bigger as Japan, but its
population is around 6 million 300 thousand people and over the last 20 years it reduced twice) 570.
“同州は日本とほぼ同じ面積で、人口は約８２万人。ソ連崩壊後の経済的な混乱やその後の人口流
出 で 広 大 な 未 耕 作 地 が あ る 。 ” (Its (Amur Oblast) area is approximately equal to Japan, its
population is around 82,000 people. There is a vast uncultivated land appeared due to the postSoviet economic turmoil and subsequent population outflow)571.
3.
Russian population is divided according to sex and age on men, women and children: “翻訳
を整理したスタッフのロシア人女性” (the translation was done by a Russian female member of
the staff),
“黒パンを売るロシア人のおじさん” (a Russian old man selling rye bread), 障害や
病気のある子 (children with diseases and disabilities).
4.
Russians are ascribed a certain ethnicity: ユダヤ系ロシア人 “yudaikeiroshiajin” (Jewish
567 Asahi Shinbun, 13 September 2013.
568 Asahi Shinbun, 9 May 2013.
569 Asahi Shinbun, 27 July 2013.
570 Asahi Shinbun, 15 January 2013.
571 Asahi Shinbun, 28 April 2013.
149
Russian), 母は白系ロシア人 haha ha hakkeiroshiajin (Mother is a Caucasian Russian).
5.
Russians are also classified according to where they live: a) in Russian regions: “遊牧生活
などを営むトゥバ人の暮らし” (life of Tuvans leading nomadic life);
“地元住民の証言も不可思
議だ。” (Testimonies of local residents are also mysterious)572; b) outside Russia: “内戦が続くシ
リアから、ロシア人の出国が相次いでいる” (Russians one after another leave Syria where the
civil war is going on) ； ” 海 外 に 住 む ロ シ ア 人 ” (Russians living abroad); c) on the batable
ground of South Kuril islands: “北方領土に住んでいた人のお話も聞きました。家にロシア人が土足
で入って来て、めずらしいものをとっていって、とてもこわかったそうです。”(I heard the talks
of people who lived in Northern Territories. Russians used to come in houses in their shoes and
take unusual things. They said it had been very scary)573.
The quantitative ratio of subframe slots illustrates higher relevance of one group of people
in comparison to others. For instance, the relevance of modern Russian politicians for the
Japanese newspaper discourse is significantly higher than that of historical personalities or art
workers. Asahi Shinbun almost never mentions neither Russian artists not their activities on the
stage. On the contrary, Russian journalism tends to mention more frequently Japanese persons of
the groups “actors”, “musicians”, that is people who are popular in the world of cinema and
music574. Both in the Japanese newspaper and in Russian mass media the most frequently
mentioned person is the working Russian president. But while Russian journalists are interested
among other in details of his private life, the Japanese are concentrated on his social and political
activities, relations with leaders of other countries.
Table 20.
Subframe “people of Russia”.
Slot
Groups of slot
%
Head of state and state
President
32.5
officials
State officials
20
Professional groups
Sport
9.5
Business
7
Scientists
3.5
Art
2.5
Military professions
1.5
Whole population
6.5
Place of residence
6.5
Separated groups
5.5
Population
572 Asahi Shinbun, 2 March 2013.
573 Asahi Shinbun, 18 December 2013.
574 BOYCHENKO, Area studies: Japan
150
Tycoons
Men/women/children
3
Ethnic Russians
1.5
-
0.5
Table 21.
Frame “Russia is a state”.
№
Subframe
Slot
%
1.
Characteristics of the state
Politics
6
Freedom
Power of the state
Democracy
Law
Human rights
Elections
Fasces
2.
Structures
of
public Government
7.5
Federal Assembly
authorities
Ambassies
Political parties
Kremlin
Security agencies
3.
Relations
of
Russia
other countries
with Japan-Russia relations
15.5
Relations with Asia
Relations with Europe
US-Russia relations
Relations with Middle/Near East
Relations with former Soviet republics
4.
Defense
Military activities
6.5
Military equipment
Army
Navy
Personnel
5.
Economy of Russia
Economy
Economy is a plant
Economy is a changing formation
Economy is a market
Economy is an order
Time of economy
151
4.5
6.
Finance
Money
4
Financial institutions
Securities
7.
Industry
Power and gas industries
6
Weaponry industry
Nuclear industry
Oil industry
Space exploration
Automobile industry
8.
Culture
Culture
4.5
Music
Everyday life
Russian language
Education
History
Religion
Art
9.
Sport
-
2.5
10.
Time of Russia
Past of Russia
1.5
Modern Russia
Future of Russia
11.
Events
-
4
12.
Society
-
3.5
13.
People of Russia
Head of state and state officials
34
Tycoons
Professional groups
Population
3.3. Frame “Russia is a terminal point”
The frame is represented by text fragments in which Russia is described as a terminal point
of a certain travel, and it is adjacent to the frame “Russia is a starting point”.
Russia can serve as an entry point for:
territories: “ロシア政府の「第２次世界大戦の結果、四島の領有権はロシアに移った」との
主張とは矛盾している。”(“The sovereignty of the four islands shifted to Russia as a result of the
Second World War”, the claims of Russian government are contradictory) 575;
575 Asahi Shinbun, 24 April 2013.
152
“中国は、清時代の
１９世紀にアムール川以北とウスリー川以東の１００万平方キロを含む広大な領土を帝政ロシア
に割譲。”(In the 19th century China of the Qing period ceded a vast territory of around one million
square kilometers to the north of the Amur river and to the east of the Ussuri river to imperial
Russia)576;
money, business: “金融分野では、政府系金融機関の国際協力銀行（ＪＢＩＣ）がロシアに
進出する日本企業を支援するため、ロシア政府系ファンドなどと投資プラットホームをもうける
ことで合意した。”(In the financial sector, government-affiliated financial institutions, Japan Bank
for International Cooperation (JBIC) and Russian government-affiliated funds have agreed to
establish investment platforms in order to promote the expansion of Japanese companies in
Russia)577;
high-tech products: “住友重機械工業は２８日、最先端のがん治療装置をロシアに輸出す
る方針を明らかにした。”(On April, 28 Sumimoto Heavy Industries has announced its intention to
export high-end cancer treatment equipment to Russia)578.
people: “スノーデン元職員は１日午後３時半ごろ（日本時間同日午後８時半ごろ）、ロ
シアに入国後、姿をくらませた。”(The former CIA officer Snowden arrived in Russia on August,
1, at 3 pm (8 pm of the same day, Japanese time) and disappeared)579.
Metaphorically it can represent a place of permanent residence for art works “born” in
another state: “パリで誕生した傑作はなぜ、ロシアに渡ったのか。” (Why masterpieces born in
Paris shifted to Russia?)580.
3.4. Frame “Russia is a starting point”
Russia is represented as a starting point (of movement, departure) in those text fragments,
where the lexeme “ ロ シ ア roshia” is used with the postposition “ か ら kara”, which indicates a
starting point of movement or a distance counting. Russia is: the starting point of a travel of people: “当時、文化の中心はフランス。世界情勢を知るため、
ロシアからも多くの使節が派遣されました。” (At that time France was the centre of culture. In
order to study the situation in the world many envoys were sent there from Russia) 581; and animals:
“約１万本のロウソクで火の鳥を描いて、ロシアから間もなく飛来するオオヒシクイを歓
迎。 ”(About 10.000 candles were used for drawing a fire bird in order to welcome bean geese
576 Asahi Shinbun, 29 August 2013.
577 Asahi Shinbun, 30 April 2013.
578 Asahi Shinbun, 29 April 2013.
579 Asahi Shinbun, 2 August 2013.
580 Asahi Shinbun, 7 September 2013.
581 Asahi Shinbun, 24 May 2013.
153
soon coming back from Russia)582;
the source of money: “さらに問題を複雑にしたのはロシアからアングラマネーを含む多額
の預金が流入していて、ユーロ圏とロシアとの利害対立を招いたことだ。”(The problem was
even more complicated by the inflow (to Cyprus) of big sums of money, including underground
money from Russia, which led to the conflict of interests between eurozone and Russia)583;
the source of resources: “鉄鉱石はオーストラリアからの輸入が前年より１３％減少した一
方 、 比 較 的 安 価 な ロ シ ア か ら が ３ 倍 に 増 え た 。 ” (While the iron ore imports from Australia
decreased by 13% compared to the previous year, the relatively inexpensive imports from Russia
increased thrice)584;
Russia is represented as a starting point not only in terms of space, but also temporally,
being a historical starting point: “この戦艦は、ロシアからソ連への歴史２０余年の間に数奇な運命
を辿る。”(This battleship over 20 years followed the way of unhappy fate starting from Russia to
the Soviet Union)585;
Russia is a point where certain actions, decisions start: “ＥＵへの接近を嫌うロシアから
ウクライナ製品の禁輸措置などの圧力をかけられ、屈した形だ。” (Ukraine succumbed under the
measures like economic embargo, taken by Russia that dislikes its approach to the EU)586;
Finally, Russia is represented as a point to separate with: “独自のデザインが発展したのは、
ロシアから独立した１９１７年以降のことだ。” ((Finland) developed proper design after 1917
when it became independent from Russia)587; “ダゲスタンは、ソ連崩壊後にロシアからの分離独
立を求めて悲惨な内戦の現場となったチェチェン共和国に隣接している。” (Dagestan is adjacent
to the Chechen Republic, which was the site of tragic civil war in search for separation and
independence from Russia after the collapse of the USSR)588.
The frame “Russia is a starting point” is wider represented than the frame “Russia is a
terminal point”. The nature of text fragment exemplifying the frame (the biggest group within it is “a
point to separate with”) help conclude that Russia within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun is not
seen as an attractive destination. Indeed, despite economic growth and slow expansion of
Japanese companies in Russia the country is considered an unattractive investment object and
business market. On the other hand, as a starting point Russia is characterized by its expansionist
policies towards neighbour countries and suppression towards proper regions. Decisions taken in
Russia are evaluated negatively and its money is “complicated”.
582 Asahi Shinbun, 11 September 2013.
583 Asahi Shinbun, 26 March 2013.
584 Asahi Shinbun, 24 January 2013.
585 Asahi Shinbun, 18 August 2013.
586 Asahi Shinbun, 30 November 2013.
587 Asahi Shinbun, 14 June 2013.
588 Asahi Shinbun, 31 December 2013.
154
3.5. Metaphoric model “Russia is a human being”
Metaphoric model “Russia is a human being” is based on anthropomorphous features
(social, mental, physiological, features of will, speech), ascribed to Russia. In the discourse of
“Asahi Shinbun” Russia is represented as a person, that is it is personified. Metaphoric model
“Russia is a human being” is mostly actualized by means of syntactic constructions wherein the
lexeme “ ロ シ ア ” is a subject of actions (Russia is understood as a certain subject, seen as a
human being). The model projects features, ontologically inherent only in a person, to the whole
country. These are features of emotional, speech, intellectual and other activities.
3.5.1. Subframe “social features”
Social features of Russia are realized in text fragments where Russia is represented as a
person playing various social roles.
As a “military man” Russia fights for a territory: “「蛇島」は、オスマン・トルコ帝国とロシ
ア 帝 国 が 領 有 を 争 っ た 後 、 １ ９ 世 紀 後 半 に ル ー マ ニ ア 領 に な っ た 。 ” (“Gajajima” became
Romanian territory in the late 19th century after Ottoman and Russian Empires fought for it)589; has
rivals: “米国は日本へのシェールガスの輸出も検討しており、実現すれば、ロシアにとっては競争
相手になる。”(The USA is examining the possibilities of exporting shell gas in Japan, and if this
plan fulfills it will become a rival of Russia) 590. Participates in military operations: “ロシアは軍事介入
に踏み切った経緯もある。” (Russia also embarked into a military intervention)591.
As an “actor” Russia plays roles: “第２次大戦をめぐり、ロシアは前身のソ連の役割をファ
シスト国家のナチス・ドイツと日本から、欧州とアジアを解放した立役者と位置づける。” (In
the context of the Second World War, Russia positions the role of its ancestor USSR as one of the
country liberated Europe and Asia from fascist governments of Nazi Germany and Japan. Not only
this position is reviled in foreign affairs, but also became the base for the world view and patriotism
of Soviet/Russian people)592.
As a “heir” Russia gets legacy: “ ソ連は１２月に崩壊、ロシア連邦が継承した。” (The
USSR collapsed in December and Russian Federation became its heir)593.
As an “athlete” Russia participates in sportive events: “日本はロシアに１０―１４で逆転負
けし、イングランドには０―３９、フランスにも０―４３で完敗。”(Japan was defeated in
589 Asahi Shinbun, 28 January 2013.
590 Asahi Shinbun, 22 March 2013.
591 Asahi Shinbun, 21 February 2013.
592 Asahi Shinbun, 28 December 2013.
593 Asahi Shinbun, 14 March 2013.
155
Russia with the score 10-14, in England (0-39) and was beaten in France (0-43))594.
As a “criminal” Russia steals territory: “日ソ中立条約を破って全千島を奪ったロシア”
(Russia violated Soviet-Japanese Neutrality pact and stole all Kuril islands)595.
Russia is not a good “teacher” to learn from: “中国指導部はソ連を崩壊させたロシアを反面
教師とする。” (Chinese leaders see Russia which ruined the USSR as a good example of what
not to do).
As a “politician” Russia draws borders: “ロシアは勝手に境界線を引いている。”(Russia
draws borders on a whim) 596; recognizes other states: “ロシアが独立を承認した南オセチアとアブ
ハジアは、グルジアの面積の２ 割を占める。 ” (After Russia recognized the independence of
South Ossetia and Abkhazia, the area of Giorgia became twice as smaller. Creating the fence
Russian side is trying to deepen the immobilization of the so-called national border) 597; adopts
policies: “オバマ米大統領がソチ冬季五輪の開会式・閉会式に出席しないという。ロシアが、同性
愛者への抑圧政策をとっていることが理由らしい。”(They say that President Obama is not going
to attend the opening and closing ceremonies of the Sochi Winter Olympics. The reason is seen in
suppressive policies against homosexuals adopted by Russia)598.
As a “puppeteer” Russia influences other countries: “ ロ シ ア が 動 か す ウ ク ラ イ ナ
件。”(Russia sets in motion the case of Ukraine)599.
As a “builder” Russia builds borders: “そこに、ロシア側がフェンスなどを設け、「国境」
として固定化しようとする動きが進む。”(Creating the fence Russian side is trying to deepen
the immobilization of the so-called national border)600; and reconstructs the Soviet economic zone:
“旧ソ連経済圏の再構築に動くロシア” (Russia is moving towards the reconstruction of the Soviet
economic zone)601.
As a “victim” Russia suffers from the actions of other countries: “ロシアを襲った隕石 ロシ
アから（亡命容認以外の）選択肢を奪ったのは米国だ。” (The US deprived Russia of choice
(other than exile acceptance). 20.08.2014); and from the actions of its own nationals: “ ９０年代以
降、たびたび悲惨なテロに苦しめられてきたロシアでは、空港や主要な鉄道駅に金属探知機が設
置 さ れ て い る 。 ” (Metal detectors have been installed at airports and major train stations in
Russia, which starting from 1990s has often been suffering from terrorism)602.
594 Asahi Shinbun, 30 July 2013.
595 Asahi Shinbun, 29 September 2013.
596 Asahi Shinbun, 25 October 2013.
597 Asahi Shinbun, 19 February 2013.
598 Asahi Shinbun, 26 December 2013.
599 Asahi Shinbun, 23 December 2013.
600 Asahi Shinbun, 19 February 2013.
601 Asahi Shinbun, 1 March 2013.
602 Asahi Shinbun, 11 April 2013.
156
As a “financier and seller” Russia makes investments: “最近、ロシアは２００７年に始まっ
たクリル開発計画に基づいて四島に資本をつぎ込み、四島はどんどん豊かになってい
る 。 ” (Recently, Russia lays out funds in the four islands according to the plan of Kuril islands
development that began in 2007, and the islands are becoming richer and richer)603; supplies other
countries with its products: “シリアの反体制派を支援する欧米は、ロシアがアサド政権に攻撃用兵
器を供給しているとの疑念を抱いている。” (While the West supports Syrian rebels, Russia is
being doubtful and supplies regime of Assad with weapons)604.
3.5.2. Subframe “bodily features”
In a range of examples Russia is represented as a human being which has a physical body.
The subframe unites text fragments in which Russia is described as a person making certain
physical actions or having organs.
For instance, Russia is described as a person who does some actions with its hands: “豊か
な資源を持つロシア。”(Russia that hold rich resources); “たびたび針を動かすロシア。”(Russia
that sometimes moves clock hands.); or moves towards something: “ロシアは民主主義に向かって
動いた。”(Russia that moves towards democratization)605; “スターリンは北海道の北半分の占領
を 要 求 し た 。 日 本 人 は 過 去 の ロ シ ア が 拡 大 主 義 路 線 を 歩 ん だ こ と を 知 っ て い る 。” (Stalin
demanded the half of Hokkaido. The Japanese know about the way of expansionism Russia of the
past was keeping)606. These examples imply that the country has hands and legs, while the next
one proves the ability of Russia to look at something, the presence of eyes: “ＬＮＧ需要が急増す
る日本の市場に、ロシアは目を向けるようになった。”(Russia shifted its focus to the Japanese
market, where LNG demand is surging)607.
Bodily metaphors compare a described object with a person because it is a person who can
do physical actions, for instance, “握る” (“to grasp”) or “一蹴”　(literally, “to kick”), etc.: “オバマ
米大統領が、歴代の米大統領が歴史的な演説をしたベルリンで、「核なき世界」に向けた決意を
語った。実現には、核大国ロシアの協力がカギを握る。”(In the city of Berlin, where several
generations of American presidents made they historical speeches, President Obama showed his
determination towards the “world without nuclear power”. But in fact it is Russia, the great nuclear
power, who hold the key of the success of this plan) 608; “ロシアは２年前、「シリアに化学兵器は存
603 Asahi Shinbun, 23 April 2013.
604 Asahi Shinbun, 16 December 2013.
605 Asahi Shinbun, 1 August 2013.
606 Asahi Shinbun, 8 November 2013.
607 Asahi Shinbun, 26 February 2013.
608 Asahi Shinbun, 20 June 2013.
157
在しない」として一蹴していた。” (There is no chemical weapons in Syria”, refused Russia 2
years ago609).
3.5.3. Subframe “features of will”
Anthropomorphism is also inherent in characteristics that describe the country in the
connection with its relations with other countries. For instance, verbs of will endow Russia with
intensional qualities inherent in a human being. Russia acts as a man, a politician who defends his
interests in various ways, showing his will. For instance, Russia:
•
wants: “ロシアはもちろん他の核保有国も一気に減らして欲しい。” (Of course, Russia
wants another nuclear country to reduce its potential at once) 610; “ロシアはアジアでの売り
上げを増やしたいので、日本は新しい供給源を手に入れるチャンスだとは言える。” (The
fact that Russia wants to increase its sales in Asia is a good chance of Japan to get a new
supplier)611;
•
aims at and tries: “日本に対しては輸出増を目指すと同時に、ジャパンマネーを取り込んで 、
巨 大 プ ロ ジ ェ ク ト を 動 か そ う と も し て い る 。 ” (At the same time with aiming at the
increase of exports in Japan and taking in Japanese money, (Russia) is trying to set in
motion a huge project)612;
•
claims: “ エスト ニアが、ロシアの 主張 を丸 のみしたのだ。 »(Estonia swallowed all the
claims of Russia)613;
•
needs something: “ロシアはいま、台頭する中国への対応や、エネルギー資源の売り込み、
極東・シベリア開発などで日本との関係強化が必要になりつつある。”(In response to the
growth of China nowadays Russia feels the necessity of strengthening the relations with
Japan in order to advance with the development of the Far East and Siberia and to sell
energy resources)614;
•
opposes: “ た だ 、 私 が １ 月 に ３ 島 返 還 に 言 及 し た 際 、 ロ シ ア の 反 発 は な か っ
た。”(However, when I mentioned the return of the three islands in January, there was no
revolt of Russia)615.
609 Asahi Shinbun, 4 December 2013.
610 Asahi Shinbun, 22 March 2013.
611 Asahi Shinbun, 7 March 2013.
612 Asahi Shinbun, 11 March 2013.
613 Asahi Shinbun, 16 June 2013.
614 Asahi Shinbun, 20 June 2013.
615 Asahi Shinbun, 20 February 2013.
158
3.5.4. Subframe “features of speech”
Of all live creatures the speech is inherent only in the man. Therefore endowing Russia with
anthropomorphous features based on its capacity to speak allows to distinguish “features of
speech” as another subframe of the metaphoric model “Russia is a human being”.
Speech activities of Russia develop within several scenarios:
•
“scenario of a talk, dialogue” is implemented when Russia communicates with somebody,
when there are other participants in a conversation: “中国、ロシア、韓国、北朝鮮、モンゴ
ル、日本は経済交流の現状と展望を２日間の日程で話し合う。” (During two days China,
Russia, South Korea, North Korea, Mongolia and Japan will discuss the state of affairs and
prospects of economic exchange)616; or when it participates in a talk: “そのうえミサイルを
さ ら に 減 ら す よ う な 話 に は 乗 れ な い と い う の が ロ シ ア の 立 場 だ 。 ” (It is Russia's
standpoint not to get involved in the talk about further missile reduction)617;
•
“scenario of criticism” is implemented by verbs “批判,　非難: ロシアが今回、安倍首相の参
拝を「遺憾だ」と批判した。”(“It is regrettable”, criticized Russia this visit to the shrine of
the Prime Minister Abe)618;
•
“scenario of reply” is typical of a situation in which Russia reacts to certain actions of its
opponents, a dialogue in this case is implied, but not necessarily explicit: “ しかし、ロシア
側は１１月、小渕恵三首相に拒否の回答をした。” (However, in November Russia gave
the negative answer to Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi)619;
•
scenario “declaration of intent” is connected with the subframe “features of will” and
includes situation in which Russia expresses its will, intentions, etc.: “ロシア産ガスの値下
げと引き換えに、ロシアが主導する自由貿易圏「関税同盟」への加盟を表明するとの臆測
も 広 が っ て い る 。 ” (It is supposed that in return of the price cut for the Russian gas,
Russia will express its expectation to see (Ukraine) joining the free trade “customs union”
lead by Russia)620.
3.5.5. Subframe “mental features”
The subframe is represented by examples in which Russia is described as a subject of
mental activities acting on the political stage. The basic mental actions implemented by Russia are:
616 Asahi Shinbun, 3 March 2013.
617 Asahi Shinbun, 20 June 2013.
618 Asahi Shinbun, 31 December 2013.
619 Asahi Shinbun, 23 April 2013.
620 Asahi Shinbun, 2 February 2013.
159
1. capacity to think, consider something in a certain way: “欧州の例をそのまま北方領土問題
に適用することは、ロシアは考えていないと思う。” (Probably it does not think that the
European example can be applied in the Northern Territories issue.) 621; “帝政ロシアはフラ
ンス思想を危険視する。”(Imperial Russia regarded French ideas as dangerous)622;
2. capacity to understand or misunderstand something: “戦後、国際舞台に復帰し、経済力を
つける中で「固有の領土」の返還を求める日本と、ソ連・ロシアはすれ違いを続けてき
た 。 ” (After the war Japan that returned to the international stage, was growing its
economic power and seeking for the return of the “native territories” and the USSR/Russia
have been at cross purposes)623;
3. capacity to solve political issues: “２０１１年には、ロシアとノルウェーが、石油やガスの
共同開発に弾みをつけようと、４０年間に及ぶ北極圏での海の境界をめぐる争いを解決し
た 。 ” (In 2011 Russia and Norway solved the dispute over the maritime border in the
Arctic, which had lasted for 40 years, in order to give an impulse to the cooperative
development of oil and gas industries)624;
4. capacity to be obsessed with ideas: “ただ、北方四島の支配は第２次世界大戦の結果とい
うことにロシアはこだわっている。”(However, Russia is obsessed with the idea that the
control over the four islands is the result of the Second World War)625.
3.5.6. Subframe “emotional features”
The subframe is formed on the basis of the metaphoric model “Russia is an emotional
subject”, that is Russia as a human being is ascribed with the capacity to feel various emotions.
First of all, by means of lexemes that include the morpheme “ 感 ” kan the Japanese
newspaper admits the ability of Russia to feel: “しかし、そのころ中国と国境確定の交渉をし、後
に解決したロシアは感じていた。”(However, that time Russia was negotiating with China over
the border, and after that it had the feeling of resolution) 626; “ロシアとキプロスは同じ東方正教の
文化圏で、互いに親近感がある。”(As Russia and Cyprus both belong to the cultural sphere of
Eastern Orthodoxy, there is a sense of intimacy between them627).
The feelings of the country, as that of a human being can be true: “混乱の原因を作ったのは
621 Asahi Shinbun, 7 June 2013.
622 Asahi Shinbun, 11 June 2013.
623 Asahi Shinbun, 23 April 2013.
624 Asahi Shinbun, 16 June 2013.
625 Asahi Shinbun, 7 June 2013.
626 Asahi Shinbun, 30 July 2013.
627 Asahi Shinbun, 21 March 2013.
160
米国なのに、一方的に責められるのは理解できないというのがロシアの本音だ。” (The true
feelings of Russia is that it cannot understand unilateral blames (of the US), even though it was the
US which invented chaotic reasons)628; or ostensible: “しかし、表向きの「蜜月ぶり」とは裏腹に 、
ロシアには警戒感も見え隠れする。軍事費の増加や海洋進出の動きなど、東アジアでの中国の
「膨張」に神経をとがらせているからだ。”(However, contrary to the outward appearance of the
“honeymoon”, the sense of caution awakes in Russia. The reason underlying the increase in
military expenditure and and steps forward of the navy is China's “swelling” in eastern Asia, getting
on Russia's nerves)629.
Russia is described as a human being able to feel positive and negative emotions towards
other countries: “ロシアが憧れたフランス。”(France admired by Russia)630.
Russia is able to experience negative feelings, for instance, worry or irritation: “ ロシアは自
分たちの核ミサイルも役に立たなくなってしまうと心配している。”(Russia is worried that its
own nuclear missiles will become useless)631; “米ロ間の緊張が高まっている。そもそも原因をつ
くったうえ、９月の米ロ首脳会談見送りも示唆する米国の強硬な姿勢に、ロシア側はいら立ちを
隠さない。”(Russia does not hide its irritation towards vigorous approach of the US, which first
has invented reasons and now hints that the US-Russia summit scheduled in September may be
postponed)632.
3.9.7. Subframe “features of character”
The subframe includes features of a human character which Russia is able to reveal in its
relations with other countries or within internal policies. For instance, Russia is caring towards
China: “ロシアにとって最大の貿易相手国である中国への配慮があるとみられる。” (It is seen as
care from the side of Russia towards China, its biggest trade partner) 633. And reveals stubbornness
in its intent to protect the regime of Assad: “ロシアがかたくなに「アサド退陣」に応じなかったの
は、旧ソ連時代からのシリアとの戦略的関係があるからだ。”(Because of its strategic relations
with Syria established in the Soviet period, Russia stubbornly did not react to the “Assad
resignation”)634. The lexeme “ か た く な ” katakuna (obstinate) implies negative attitude of Asahi
Shinbun towards the actions of Russia and places Japan on the side of the US and Europe in
Syrian issue.
628 Asahi Shinbun, 30 July 2013.
629 Asahi Shinbun, 23 March 2013.
630 Asahi Shinbun, 3 June 2013.
631 Asahi Shinbun, 20 June 2013.
632 Asahi Shinbun, 3 August 2013.
633 Asahi Shinbun, 16 February 2013.
634 Asahi Shinbun, 19 June 2013.
161
Though Russia is considered a skeptical and stubborn country: “米政府がアサド政権の化学
兵器使用を断定したことをめぐっても、ロシアは懐疑的な姿勢を崩さなかったようだ。”(Russia
did not change its skeptical attitude towards the conclusions of the US government that the regime
of Assad uses chemical weapons)635, the newspaper admits also some positive tendencies in its
character evolution: “ロシアはますます親しみやすい隣の国になってきました。” (Russia has
gradually become a friendlier country)636.
Table 22.
Metaphoric model “Russia is a human being”.
n.
Subframe
%
1.
Social features
41.5
2.
Emotional features
17.5
3.
Features of character
10
4.
Mental features
10
5.
Bodily features
8.5
6.
Features of speech
7
7.
Features of will
5.5
3.6. Metaphoric model “Russia is an artifact”
The model includes two metaphoric models and one metaphor that actualize material
features of Russia.
3.6.1. Metaphoric model “Russia is a mechanism”
As a mechanism can be ruined in the same way a country can be ruined by corruption or
misrule: “FSB が ロ シ ア を 破 壊 す る ” (FSB that ruins Russia); “ ロ シ ア を 破 壊 す る 汚 職 ”
(corruption that ruins Russia). Presumably, metaphors describing Russia as a mechanism compare
it with a train or another vehicle, for instance: “ロシアの将校たちがパリに行き、いかにロシアが遅
れているかに気づき、帰ってから近代化に励もうとする。”(Russian officers who went to Paris,
realized there how much the country is left behind, and after coming back they tried to modernize
it)637. In this case semantic compatibility allows to deduct that the subject is characterized as
means of transport, compare: “列車は遅れた。”(The train was delayed).
In the following text fragment Japan and Russia are compared with pipeline fixations, that is
635Asahi Shinbun, 18 June 2013.
636 Asahi Shinbun, 18 April 2013.
637 Asahi Shinbun, 11 June 2013.
162
with elements of a complex mechanism, united by a pipeline: “「将来は日本とロシアをつなぐパイ
プラインになりたいです」”(In the future I would like to become a pipeline connecting Japan and
Russia)638.
3.6.2. Metaphor “Russia is a commodity”
The metaphor is actualized in the text fragment “米国とロシアをてんびんにかける時代がき
た” (it is time to put the US and Russia on scales), wherein Russia and the US are compared
with a good which must be put on scales.
3.6.3. Metaphoric model “Russia is a house”
The metaphoric model is realized in those text fragments where Russia is described as a
construction that has elements inherent to a house, building. For instance, as a house Russia has
a window and an entrance, which are located in its geographical objects: “「アジアへの窓」と位置
づける極東ウラジオストクで昨秋、アジア太平洋経済協力会議（ＡＰＥＣ）を開催。” (Far
Eastern city Vladivostok, which is also called “the window to Asia” became the last autumn the
venue of APEC conference)639; “ソチは、いわばロシアの南の玄関だ。” (Sochi is, so to speak,
the entrance to the South of Russia)640.
As many other buildings, the country has a dump, located in what in Russia is considered to
by its symbol, Red Square, mistakenly called Kremlin Square: “ロシアのクレムリンの広場は、ま
るでガラクタ捨て場みたいに雑多な物品が置かれていた。” (Russian Kremlin Square looked like
a dump, where mixed goods were thrown)641.
The building of Russia has also walls, based on language and customs difficulties of
Russian business: “言葉や商習慣の壁が立ちはだかるロシアビジネス。”(Language barriers and
business practices standing on the way of Russian business); and pillars, based on exports of
resources: “ 資 源 の 輸 出 は ロ シ ア の 経 済 成 長 の 柱 。 ” (The exports of resources are pillars of
Russia's economic growth)642.
638 Asahi Shinbun, 24 August 2013.
639 Asahi Shinbun, 24 July 2013.
640 Asahi Shinbun, 8 February 2013.
641 Asahi Shinbun, 22 February 2013.
642 Asahi Shinbun, 30 June 2013.
163
3.7. Metaphoric model “Russia is a live creature”
The model is based on ascribing Russia features of a live creature, that is vital features. In
the discourse of Asahi Shinbun Russia is endowed with the capacity to procreate: “アレクサンド
ル・カレリン氏を生んだロシア。”(Russia that gave birth to Alexander Karelin)643.
As a live creature Russia is characterized by its ability to grow: “ロシアは成長スピードが落
ち ず 、 み ん な を 驚 か せ て い る 。 ” (Russia doesn't lose the speed of growth and surprises
everyone)644; and to change: “近くて遠かったロシアが文字通り近い存在へと変わりつつあるのは
う れ し い 。 ” (It is great that near far Russia is becoming literally nearer)645. Finally, as a live
creature Russia can be attacked by an enemy: “ロシアを襲った隕石。” (Meteorite that attacked
Russia)646.
Conclusions to the chapter III
According to the generic analysis of direct and metaphoric features of the concept 'roshia' the
structure of the concept was revealed and presented in tabular form.
Table 23.
Structure of the concept 'roshia'
Frame/metaphoric model
Subframe
%
%
Russia is the country/territory
Geographical objects
57,5
12
Country
21
Geography
15
Space
6
Soil
0.5
Characteristics of the state
6
Structures of public authorities
7.5
Relations of Russia with other countries
15.5
Defense
6.5
Economy of Russia
4.5
Finance
4
Industry
6
Culture
4.5
Russia is a state
643 Asahi Shinbun, 10 February 2013.
644 Asahi Shinbun, 7 January 2013.
645 Asahi Shinbun, 24 February 2013.
646 Asahi Shinbun, 1 March 2013.
164
82
Sport
2.5
Time of Russia
1.5
Events
4
Society
3.5
People of Russia
34
Russia is a starting point
0.5
Russia is a terminal point
0.5
Russia is a human being
Russia is an artifact
Social features
41.5
Emotional features
17.5
Features of character
10
Mental features
10
Bodily features
8.5
Features of speech
7
Features of will
5.5
Mechanism
62
Commodity
0.5
House
37.5
Russia is a live creature
3.5
1
0.5
Given that the frame is a structure of knowledge that actualizes typical, stereotypical
notions about objects of reality, and conclusions over typicality can be made on the basis of
frequency, it can be said that the model of the concept 'roshia'　was formed on the basis of statistic
analysis. This model:
1.
has segmental structure, that is consist of 7 segments (frames), reflecting “direct” features:
“Russia is a country/territory”, “Russia is a state”, “Russia is a starting point”, “Russia is a terminal
point”, (95%) and metaphoric models reflecting “indirect” features: “Russia is a human being”,
“Russia is an artifact”, “Russia is a live creature” (5%);
2.
reflects a fragment of the world-view within the discourse of Asahi Shinbun, denoted as
the concept 'roshia' and actualized by means of reflecting its most relevant facets;
2.
the most widely represented frame is “Russia is a state” (82%) and the subframe “people of
Russia” (34%) within it. The latter fact allows to conclude that a society according to the discourse
of Asahi Shinbun consists of concrete persons, and history is created by most talented, brightest or
by most notorious of them. It is from this point of view that Russian nation is perceived and
evaluated. The subframes “relations of Russia with other countries”, “the structures of public
authorities” and “defense” are also widely represented as parts of the frame “Russia is a state”. It
can be explained primarily by objective socio-political processes in the country and in the world
and by the relevance of these processes for the studied discourse. The newspaper Asahi Shinbun
165
aims at systematizing news of a day from around the world, and therefore focuses on such topics
as international relations, internal policies, economy. In addition Japan has a maritime border with
Russia, for this reason its military activities in the Far East attract attention of the newspaper. For
instance, journalists of Asahi Shinbun are well informed about the naval aviation of Russia, but are
not interested in its civil aviation (the slot is not presented anywhere). The next most represented
frame is “Russia is a country/territory” (12%) and the subframe “geographical objects” (57.5%)
within it. Various social features (41.5%) are the most widely represented subframe within the
metaphoric model “Russia is a human being” (3.5%): as a human being Russia is perceived first of
all in its social image,
that can be correlated with the highest representation of political
personalities compared with other persons.
3.
Notions about Russia are also formulated in terms of stereotypical knowledge. The use of
stereotypes is caused by the orientation of journalistic texts towards description of recurring typical
situations of the social life. For instance, the studied discourse realizes notions, based on
knowledge about socio-political processes of current importance:
•
after the collapse of the USSR Russia was in the state of chaos, turmoil, disorder. The
process of recovery has not finished yet;
•
the
main
socio-political
tendencies
are:
centralization
of
power,
return
toward
authoritarianism;
•
Russia is a huge country stretched in the space, rich with natural resources;
•
despite economic growth today the attractiveness of Russia as an investment market is
controversial: its advantages are natural resources, development of the Far East, its
disadvantages are the lack of business systems and civilized business practices, mistrust
towards Russia and Russians.
5.
According to Teun van Dijk, “journalistic models express the attitude towards social
structures and are strategically organized in professional terms of “news values”. Relevance and
importance of topics and personalities, in this way, seem to be “natural” characteristics of news,
and not a consequence of social value of news objects, which is as a rule a “biased” opinion” 647.
Biased opinion about Russia is expressed in terms of stereotypical knowledge, which describes not
only objective trends and phenomena of modern Russian social life, but also the attitude towards
them, included in the structure of stereotypes:
•
Russia is a country that cannot be rationally understood: emotional attitude towards
mysteriousness, unpredictability of Russia is included in the stereotype;
•
Russia is a despotic country that aims at authoritarian style of governance, tries to
dominate neighbour countries, which is assessed negatively: within the country it is the
return towards the past, on the international stage it is the suppression of freedom and
independence of other countries as norms of social life.
647 DIJK, News as discourse.
166
•
Russia tries to enter Europe and Asia, aims at European practices and norms of life,
establishes relations with other countries, including Japan (which is assessed positively due
to the tendency of the discourse towards tolerance and compromises), but, on the other
hand, Russia is opposed to countries of all regions of the world (the US and Japan, first of
all), it does not do real steps towards the settlement of the territorial issue and in this way
hampers the development of its relations with Japan.
•
Russian history is full of calamities, wars, conflicts; Russians do not live long and happily;
Russian society is the society of politicians, tycoons and criminals (often they are the same
people).
•
Russian people are sociable, cheerful and talented, but at the same time gloomy, foolish
and unpredictable.
6.
Conclusions can also be made concerning some features of the Japanese linguistic world-
view in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun:
a) for instance, the use of metaphors as ways of rethinking reality illustrates particularities of
conceptualization by the Japanese linguistic consciousness of such social phenomena as
economic growth or power of a country. Political power is described by means of orientational
metaphors that point at internal spatial characteristics of an object (upward movement) and
external characteristics (being at the top). Political backwardness is described as a backward
movement or lateness, that is the absence of upward movements. For a country the power and
force are determined by the degree of authority, influence, a strong country is placed at the top,
above other states.
b) Based on assessments used in descriptions of Russia and on contextual analysis of text
fragments, which include component “attitude towards Russia”, an “ideal” of a social structure in
the discourse of Asahi Shinbun can be formed. For instance, the following conditions are
postulated as “ideal”: democracy (the purpose of political progress), the rule of law, freedom (of
faith, expression, elections, choice), stability (political and economic, wherein the latter is
understood as a stable growth). All social phenomena and processes that contribute to the failure
to achieve the “ideal” (authoritarian style of governance, military operations, suppressive laws, etc.)
are estimated as deviant and immoral.
Conclusions
The concept 'roshia' in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun is a sociocultural concept that
accumulates knowledge of the Japanese about Russia. On one hand, it is a complex mental
formation that includes knowledge about real structure of the country as a state (its social
“mechanism”) and territory (its space). On the other hand, any concept is a product of national
culture and social concepts form a conceptual sphere of political communication which constitutes
167
one of the spheres of the culture.
The study of national notions about another nation is as a matter of fact interdisciplinary:
the task of this study was to form the structure of the concept 'roshia' in the discourse of Asahi
Shinbun, and it was solved by means of complex methods of conceptual analysis.
The concept 'roshia' has a complex structure of denominations, realized in the language by
various linguistic means. The analysis of linguistic means of representation of the concept allowed
to distinguish three groups of ways of its actualization:
1. by means of the lexeme “ロシア　roshia”;
2. by means of lexemes “ ロ シ ア roshia” ( の no) + N, “ ロ シ ア 人 roshiajin”, that is by
ascribing the feature “Russian” to people, objects, realities of modern Russian social life;
3.
by means of other lexemes, such as “ソ連 soren”, “巨大な国 kyodaina kuni”, ” 祖国
sokoku”, etc.
The most frequent way of the concept actualization is ascribing the feature “Russian” to
objects and realities, that is by means of lexemes “ ロ シ ア roshia”( の no) + N. The feature
“Russian” actualizes in the discourse of Asahi Shinbun such elements of the linguistic world-view
as Russian president, Russian government, Russian army, Russian language, Russian people,
Russian money, natural gas, etc.
The concept 'roshia' consists of seven segments: 4 frames (“Russia is a country/territory”,
“Russia is a state”, “Russia is a starting point”, “Russia is a terminal point”) and 3 metaphoric
models (“Russia is a human being”, “Russia is an artifact”, “Russia is a live creature”). By means of
statistic analysis of the concept's features the most relevant frames within the discourse of Asahi
Shinbun were revealed: they are “Russia is a state”, “Russia is a country/territory” and metaphoric
model “Russia is a human being”.
The first stage of the construction of the conceptual structure was the identification of a set
of syntactic constructions in which the concept is actualized. They are:
•
verbal subjective (SV) (position of the subject with a verb);
•
verbal objective (OV) (position of the object with a verb);
•
predicative (position of the predicate);
•
adjectival (position of a defined object);
•
substantival postpositional;
•
substantival (NN) (position of an attributive).
Based upon the semantic relations of language units in the nearest syntactic surrounding of
lexemes actualizing the concept, the conclusions can be made concerning semantic classifiers that
categorize the concept. These semantic classifiers have become the base for the formation of
segments of the concept, and defined relations within the concept.
168
For instance, on the basis of a dictionary definition of the lexeme “ ロシア roshia”　it was
concluded that Russia first of all is categorized as a country/territory (space). The lexeme “ ロシア
roshia” in the meaning “country/territory” functions in word-combinations “ロシアに roshia ni”, “ロ
シアで roshia de”, “ロシアにおける roshia ni okeru”, where postpositions に ni,　で de,　におけ
る niokeru categorize Russia as a certain locus in which something goes on (spatial semantic
classifier). It has become the base for the frame “Russia is a country/territory”.
The way of actualization “ ロ シ ア roshia + verb” (as a subject of action) includes wordcombinations with intensional verbs and grammar forms (目指す mezasu, Ｖてほしい Vtehoshii,
Ｖ た い Vtai). Such verbs endow Russia with intensional features, inherent in the human being.
Actions, usually done by a man, turned out to be typical of the whole country. This premise allowed
to conclude that Russia is characterized as a human being and to form the metaphoric model
“Russia is a human being”.
Subframes and slots (scenarios) of frames were distinguished on the basis of
“embeddedness” of a finer structure of knowledge into a larger one. For instance, the frame
“Russia is a country/territory” contains subframes “country”, “soil”, “geography”, “geographical
objects”, “space”. Metaphoric model “Russia is a human being” consists of subframes “social
features”, “features of speech”, “mental features”, “emotional features”, “features of character”.
During the modeling of the structure of the concept 'roshia' it was revealed that “direct”
features of the concept are represented wider than “indirect”. These are the features that form
frames and slots as structures of knowledge about objective facets of Russian realities. The
structure of the concept contains assessment, and the text fragments explicate stereotypes about
Russia. The realization of stereotypes about Russia occurs in two main ways:
1. stereotype is explicated in a text fragment;
2. stereotype is included in the structure of a frame.
In the first case a stereotype as a generalized, schematic, frequent knowledge about object
is realized by means of a verbal formula (sometimes taking a form of a precedent phenomenon,
cliches, etc.). Markers are language schemes like “ロシアと言えば roshia to ieba”, for instance:
“ロシアと言えば、ウオツカが有名です。”(Speaking of Russia, its vodka is famous)648;”予測不可
能性 。 １ ９世 紀のロシア詩人チュッチェフの 詩「ロシアは 頭では理解できない」。” (The
unpredictability (of Russia). The poem “You can't understand Russia with your mind” of a Russian
poet of 19th century Tyutchev)649.
In the second case a stereotype is a generalization, certain knowledge concluded from the
structure of a frame. For instance, on the basis of the analysis of the frame “Russia is a state”,
648 Asahi Shinbun, 14 November 2013.
649 Asahi Shinbun, 24 February 2013.
169
subframe “characteristics of the state” and slot “democracy” it can be concluded that democracy is
seen as an ideal, norm, to which Russia does not correspond. The deviation from democratic
norms is evaluated negatively.
The analysis of proportions of the concept's features and linguistic means of their
actualization (including evaluation, emotionally marked language units, metaphors, metonymies)
allows to create a detailed portrait of Russia as it is represented in the discourse of the newspaper
Asahi Shinbun.
As a result, the main characteristics of Russia can be formulated in the following way:
•
Russia is a country in Northern Asia, geographically it also occupies a part of Eastern
Europe, but it is not Europe;
•
Russia is people living there;
•
Political, economic and social life are concentrated in Moscow, but Moscow is not Russia;
•
Russia is a country with cold climate;
•
Russia is a huge country with great culture, which still retains much of the old way of life;
•
Russian are people with unpredictable character, caused by a particular “soul”, which is
characterized by their openness and love towards Motherland. But they can also be coolheaded and cruel.
Japanese language absorbed Russian words that actualize such facets of the world-view
as:
•
technical objects: “ソユーズ” soyūzu, “スプートニク”supūtoniku;
•
Russian drinks: “ウオツカ” uotsuka;
•
Greetings and thanks: “ダスヴィダーニヤ” dasuvidāniya, “スパシーバ” supashība;
•
plant facilities: “ガスプロム” gasupuromu;
•
names of politicians and tycoons: “プーチン” pūchin, “ベレゾフスキー” berezofusukī
Based upon the statement that every feature of the concept can be expanded to an
independent concept with its own structure the prospects of the research are seen in the study of
concepts of the Japanese culture, such as “democracy”, “economy”, “law”, “freedom”, etc.
170
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